FOREST  REGULATION 


OR  THE 


PREPARATION  AND   DEVELOPMENT  OF 
FOREST  WORKING  PLANS 


VOLUME  I 
OP 


Michigan  Manual  of  Forestry 


BY 
FILIBERT  ROTH 

1914 


PUBLISHED   BY   THE   AUTHOR 
ANN   ARBOR,    MICHIGAN 


COPYRIGHT   1914 
BY    FIL1BERT   ROTH 


ANN   ARBOR    PRESS 


TO    MY    BOYS 

THIS  BOOK  IS 

DEDICATED 


447380 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PART  I.     INTRODUCTORY i 

1.  What  Regulation  tries  to  do I 

2.  Typical  German  Forest  Business 3 

3.  History    7 

4.  German  Case  of  Regulation 1 1 

PART  IT,    THE  REPORT  ON  THE  PROPERTY 24 

A.  The  American  Case .  24 

B.  The  Field  Work 31 

I.  Examination  of  Property 32 

1.  Preliminary  Survey   32 

2.  Detail  Survey  or  Examination 34 

a.  Land  Division 34 

b.  Value  of  Sub-division 39 

c.  Description  and  Mapping 43 

1.  Covering  the  Land 43 

2.  Information  and  its  Record 45 

3.  Description  Sheet 47 

4.  Computation 50 

5.  Mapping   51 

6.  Accuracy  of  Work 51 

II.  Special  Studies  in  the  Forest 52 

a.  Volume  Tables 52 

b.  Yield  Tables   54 

c.  Forecast  Tables    57 

d.  Other  Studies  in  Timber 57 

e.  Conditions  other  than  Timber 58 


vi  FOREST  REGULATION 

III.  Information  not  of  the  Property 59 

a.  Exploitation,  Methods,  Cost 60 

b.  Markets    60 

c.  Population* and  Business  of  District.  . 61 

d.  Contracts  and  Leases 61 

e.  General  Topography  and  Land  of  District 62 

f .  Climate    62 

g.  Present  Organization 64 

IV.  List  of  Lands   64 

V.     Detail  Descriptions,  Notes  &  Maps 65 

C.  Compilation  of  Information 66 

D.  Sample  Report 67 

PART  III.    PLANS 81 

General  Plans 81 

A.  General  Considerations    81 

B.  Object  of  Management   83 

C.  Choice  of  Species 88 

D.  Methods  of  Silviculture 90 

a.  Methods    90 

1.  Selection  Method 90 

2.  Shelterwood  Method  92 

3.  Clear  Cut  with  Natural  Reproduction 93 

4.  Clear  Cut  with  Artificial  Reproduction 95 

5.  Coppice  Method 97 

6.  Standard  Coppice   98 

b.  What  Method  to  Use  99 

c.  Illustrations  from  Different  Forest  Regions 100 


TABT,E  OF   CONTENTS  vii 

B.     Rotation 108 

a.  Technical  Rotation   108 

b.  Rotation  for  Largest  Volume 112 

c.  Rotation  for  Largest  Yearly  Income 112 

d.  Rotation  for  Highest  Interest  Rate  on  Soil .  113 

e.  Physical  Rotation 115 

f .  Natural  Rotation  in  Wild  Woods 1 16 

g.  Choice  of  Rotation  in  U.  S 117 

P.     Regulation  of  Cut  in  Amount  and  Location 119 

I.  General  Considerations   119 

Age  Classes  and  their  Distribution ;  Working  Section, 

Cutting  Series ;  Regularity  in  the  Wild  Woods. 

II.  Methods  of  Regulating  the  Cut 131 

A.  General  Considerations ;  Classification 131 

B.  Regulated  or  Normal  Forest 134 

C.  Area  Methods 139 

1.  Fixed  Yearly  Cut 139 

2.  Area   Allotment    142 

3.  Limited  Area  Allotment  or  Judeich   Method 145 

D.  Volume  Methods 146 

1.  Volume  Allotment   147 

2.  Growing  Stock  Methods,  Austrian  and  Hundeshagen .  150 

III.  Application  of  Methods  in  U.  S. 159 

1 .  In  Wood  Lot 1 59 

2.  In  Large  Selection  Forests 160 

3.  In  Southern  Pinery 163 

4.  In  Lodge  Pole  Forests   164 

5.  In  Western  Yellow  Pine 167 

G.     General  Plan  of  Improvements 171 

H.     Plan  of  LTtilization 175 

/.     General  Plans  of  Protection  .  180 


Viii  FOREST  REGULATION 

K.     Estimates  of  Income  and  Expenses 182 

Detail  Plans 183 

1.  Plan  of  Organization   184 

2.  Plan  of  Protection 184 

3.  Plan  of  Improvements  . 185 

4.  Plan  of  Utilization    186 

5.  Plans  of  Secondary  Utilization 189 

6.  Planting  Plans   190 

7.  Plans  for  Survey  and  Special  Studies 191 

Records  or  Book-keeping 192 

a.  Record  of  Property 193 

b.  Records  of  Work  and  Results 195 

Supervision  and  Revision   199 

APPENDIX   203 

Treatment   of   the      Subject  of  Regulation  by  Judeich, 

Martin,  Guttenberg,  Stoetzer,  and  Weise 203 


LITERATURE  OF  REGULATION 


Judeich,  Forsteinrichtung  (Forest  Regulation),  First  edition,  1871  ; 
sixth,  1904.  Generally  recognized  the  greatest  authority  on 
Forest  Regulation.  Contains  a  complete  list  of  literature, 
enumerates  229  works. 

Guttenberg,  Forstbetriebseinrichtung,  1903. 

Martin,  Forsteinrichtung,  1906,  and  1910. 

Stoetzer,  Forsteinrichtung,   1908. 

Weise,  Leitfaden — der  Ertragsregelung,  1904. 

Wagner,  Grundlagen  d.  .Raumlichen  Ordnung  im  Walde,  1911. 

Wagner,  Der  Blendersaumschlag  und  sein  System,  1912. 

Schlich,  Manual  of  Forestry,  1895,  Vol.  Ill,  Forest  Management. 

Fernow,  Economics  of  Forestry,  1902 ;  also  History  of  Forestry, 
1907. 

Recknagel,  Theory  and  Practice  of  Working  Plans,  1913. 
See  also  Appendix. 


PART  I.    INTRODUCTORY. 


i.     WHAT  REGULATION  TRIES  TO  DO. 

The  task  of  Forest  Regulation  is : 

To  build  up ;  Put  in  order,  and  Keep  in  order  a  forest  business. 

a)  In  the  United  States  the  task  is  to  take  a  piece  of  Wild  Woods 
and  convert  this  gradually  into  a  forest  business  which  shall  produce 
timber,  as  much  and  as  good  as  the  land  and  climate  permit,  and  to 
have  this  timber  in  such  a  condition  of  age  and  arrangement  that 
a  crop  may  be  cut  each  year,  and  thus  an  income  secured  in  keeping 
with  the  investment. 

To  accomplish  this,  Regulation  not  only  orders  in  time  and 
place,  the  work  of  Silviculture,  the  planting  or  reproduction  of  the 
stands  of  timber  and  their  care,  but  it  also  plans  an  orderly  harvest 
of  these  stands  of  timber,  and  plans  the  necessary  improvements, 
division  into  suitable  parts,  necessary  roads  and  other  means  required 
to  enable  satisfactory  Protection  and  Utilization  of  the  forest. 

Regulation  plans  the  work  on  the  forest ;  Administration  car- 
ries out  the  plans.  But  these  two  branches  of  Forest  Management 
are  never  sharply  separated. 

b)  Regulation  depends  on  many  conditions.     It  must  consider 
the  land  and  timber  it  has  to  work  with  to  raise  the  crop,  and  it  must 
consider  market,  transportation  and  labor  which  decide  the  value 
of  the  crop  after  it  is  raised.    But  Regulation  is  especially  dependent 
upon  Silviculture  and  their  relation  is  interesting  in  this  connection. 

Silviculture  studies  the  best  methods  of  raising  the  stand  of 
timber  under  the  various  conditions  of  soil,  climate  and  species, 
and  it  applies  these  methods  in  its  work.  Thus  Silviculture  depends 
on  natural  (not  man-made)  conditions,  and  on  natural  laws  and  to 
this  extent  it  must  not  be  interfered  with  by  Regulation  and 
Administration. 


When  Silviculture  has  indicated  that  a  particular  tract  of  land 
is  suited  to  Spruce,  and  that  Spruce  will  thrive  if  planted,  thinned 
and  cared  for,  according  to  a  certain  method,  its  share  in  Regulation 
is  ended.  Then  it  depends  on  Utilization  and  Valuation  whether  a 
certain  method  of  planting  is  sufficiently  economical  to  be  planned 
for  by  Regulation,  whether  it  is  economical  to  use  the  method  of 
planting  with  large  transplants,  whether  it  is  advisable  in  this  case 
to  thin  every  ten  years,  and  whether  it  is  best  to  cut  this  timber  at 
the  age  of  80,  or  100  years.  Regulation,  weighing  all  conditions 
formulates  the  plan  for  Silviculture  to  follow,  and  do  its  best  whether 
the  decision  is  for  seeding,  planting,  or  natural  reproduction,  and 
whether  it  is  the  most  effective,  expeditious  way  of  raising  a  stand 
of  timber  or  not. 

c)  In  our  country  the  Forester  starts  with  wild  woods;  often 
not  even  surveyed.  In  one  locality  he  finds  good  market  for  every 
thing,  in  another  no  market  at  all ;  usually  no  division  of  the  forests 
into  convenient  tracts,  (fields  or  lots  or  compartments)  ;  no  roads; 
no  help,  no  information  regarding  land  or  timber,  save  a  few 
unreliable  estimates  of  the  "merchantable"  stuff ;  no  information  as 
to  how  fast  the  timber  grows,  how  old  it  must  be  before  it  reaches 
certain  marketable  sizes.  The  job  is  all  new,  and  in  many  cases 
conditions  do  not  warrant  doing  more  than  establishing  ownership 
and  giving  the  forest  protection.  Generally,  however,  the  tendency 
is  to  overrate  difficulties,  and  underrate  possibilities.  In  the  United 
States  conditions  change  rapidly  ;  what  serves  and  seems  sufficient 
today  is  no  longer  so  tomorrow'.  Railways  are  building  into  every 
nook  and  corner  of  our  country  ;  the  demand  for  timber  in  the  United 
States  is  enormous  and  is  still  on  the  increase ;  the  price  of  stumpage 
has  advanced,  in  some  cases  500%  in  less  than  20  years ;  large  areas 
of  supplies  have  been  entirely  exhausted ;  there  is  practically  no 
growth  replacing  our  cut.  The  development  of  forestry  in  the 
United  States  cannot  take  the  slow  way  it  has  followed  in  the  Old 
World.  The  tree  planted  today  in  almost  any  part,  of  the  eastern 
half  of  the  United  States  will  bring  as  good  a  stumpage  as  it  would 
in  Germany  or  France  by  the  time  it  is  ready  to  cut ;  the  forester 
builds  for  the  future,  and  this  future  is  safely  judged  by  the  best 
conditions  seen  in  parts  of  our  country  even  now.  It  is  also  safe  to 
judge  this  future  by  the  conditions  existing  in  the  most  advanced 
and  most  prosperous  parts  of  Europe. 


]NTRt)l)UrT017Y  3 

d)  In   Germany,   say    for  the   last    100  years,   Regulation   did 
not  usually  start  with  wild  woods,  but  it   found  an  old  business, 
well  established,  with  areas  marked,  the  forest  divided,  accessible 
by   roads,   with   a   system   of  protection,   and   with   records   giving 
experience  to  build  upon.     Practically  everywhere  the  Market  was 
established,  and  the  necessity  of  the  work  was  recognized.     Modern 
Regulation   merely   established  a   better   system  just   as   modern 
farm  management  attempts  to  help  agriculture  by  improving  system. 

e)  But  what  is  such  a  Forest  Business  as  we  wish  to  build 
up,  and  develop?    The  answer  must  come  from  the  Old  World,  and 
hence  the  following  brief  description  of  a  German  Forest. 


2.     A  TYPICAL  GERMAN  FOREST  BUSINESS. 

This  "Revier"  or  Forest  looked  after  by  one  Forester  ( Ober- 
forster)  is  part  of  the  State  Forests  of  Wiirttemberg,  and  may  be 
described  categorically  about  as  follows : 

Area:  about  8000  acres  (3205  hectares)  ;  nearly  all  in  one  body. 

Staff  of  men  or  Organization:  one  "Oberforster,"  or  Forester 
and  six  Rangers  ("Forstwart"). 

Country :  Hilly,  and  easy  rolling,  gravel  and  clay  lands ;  old 
and  well  settled,  prosperous. 

Market:  Can  sell  everything  even  faggot  material,  average 
price  about  15  cts.  per  cu.  ft.  on  stump;  railway,  trunkline,  runs 
through  one  corner  of  the  forest. 

Labor :  Plenty,  but  demands  fair  wages  and  steady  work ; 
numerous  factories  compete  for  this. 

Roads:  A  complete  network  of  roads,  well  located  and  sur- 
faced with  gravel,  connects  every  tract  or  lot  with  the  main  lines 
and  railway.  These  roads  were  built  and  are  maintained  by  the 
forest  itself. 

Climate :  Raw  ;  cold  winters/  cool  wet  summers,  excellent  for 
timber,  and  for  agriculture;  heavy  wind  storms  due  to  proximity 
to  the  Alps. 

Forest  Protection:  Good:  the  six  Rangers  patrol  daily,  all 
year  round  ;  the  people  of  the  district  are  not  only  compelled,  but 


4  FOREST  REGULATION 

are  glad  to  assist  in  prevention  of  fire.  No  real  forest  fire  here  in 
fifty  years ;  probably  not  in  a  hundred. 

Division  of  the  Forest:  Working  Section  I.  Spruce  forest, 
85%  of  entire  forest.  Method  of  silviculture:  Clear  cut  and  plant, 
with  5  year  transplants;  ripe  timber  cut  at  age  of  90-100  years;  all 
stands  thinned  about  every  10  years. 

Working  Section  II.  Beech  forest  12%  total;  Shelterwood 
method  ;  rotation  120  years. 

Working  Section  III.  Mixed  hardwoods  2%  of  total  on  over- 
flow land;  Selection  Method,  cut  over  every  10-15  years.  Alder 
grows  here  to  a  height  of  100  ft. 

Besides  these  three  kinds  of  woods,  there  are  a  few  small 
patches  of  hardwood  Coppice,  mostly  Alder  and  Ash  on  wet  spots, 
scattered  through  the  forest,  which  also  have  their  own  plan. 

Land  Division :  The  entire  forest  is  divided  into  fields  or  Lots 
(compartments)  generally  less  than  40  acres  in  size  and  separated 
by  cleared  lines,  or  by  roads.  These  Lots  are  all  marked  with  stone 
monuments,  and  numbered. 

Cutting  Series:  All  over  the  entire  forest,  the  Lots  are1  grouped 
in  twos  or  threes,  and  the  lines  around  each  of  these  groups  is  made 
double  width  or  about  30  ft.,  so  that  the  trees  along  these  lines 
keep  their  limbs  and  form  a  solid  protective  border  against  wind, 
and  also  become  more  windfirm  than  they  are  inside  the  stands. 
These  groups  of  two  or  three  (rarely  one)  lots  thus  make  little 
independent  woods,  separated  from  the  surrounding  woods,  or  their 
neighbors,  by  wide  lines,  so  that  the  timber  on  any  one  of  these 
tracts  can  be  cut  without  endangering  the  surrounding  forest. 
These  independent  woods  (Cutting  Series),  here  in  Spruce,  are  a 
necessity,  for  without  them  the  forest  would  suffer  great  loss  from 
windfall,  if  the  older  stands  were  opened  up  by  accident  or  by 
cutting  of  timber. 

Silviculture :  The  methods  have  been  mentioned  and  the  care 
here  is  of  the  .best.  A  nursery  on  the  property  supplies  all  plant 
stock.  Even1:  stand  is  thinned  at 'least  once  every  ten  years.  Every 
acre  of  this  forest  is  "man-raised,"  not  one  acre  is  original  wild- 
woods. 

Age  Classes:  Old,  middle  age  and  young  timber  occur  here  in 
such  perfect  regularity  that  there  is  a  crop  of  Spruce,  of  Beech  and 


GERMAN    FORKS'!'  5 

of  other  hardwoods  ready  to  cut  every  year,  without  fail.  Having 
been  under  good  management  so  long,  there  is  now  about  the  same 
area  of  Spruce  1-20  years,  21-40  years,  etc.,  clear  up  to  100  year 
old  stuff.  Hut  the  80-100  year  old  timber  is  not  in  one  body  but  is 
in  a  dozen  or  more  different  tracts,  scattered  over  the  forest ;  and 
this  is  also  true  of  the  young  timber.  In  fact  special  care  is  had  to 
prevent  large  tracts  of  timber  all  of  one  age,  since  this  has  been 
found  dangerous  particularly  on  account  of  windfalls  and  insects. 

Cut  of  timber:  Is  yearly  logged  by  contract,  logging  done  "by 
hand"  ;  done  by  small  groups  of  men  regularly  employed  on  the 
forest ;  the  material  cut  in  thinnings  is  skidded  to  the  road ;  where 
old  stands  are  cut  clear,  the  stems  and  cordwood  are  left  on  the 
land  to  be  hauled  away  by  the  buyer.  The  timber  is  cut  in  long 
lengths,  commonly  full  length,  like  telephone  poles,  peeled,  each 
piece  marked  and  measurements  noted  on  stick.  The  timber  is  sold 
in  small  and  large  lots,  by  auction  sale.  The  thinnings  pay  well ; 
for  instance  the  thinning  of  a  stand  of  Spruce  70  years  old  brought 
over  $80.00  per  acre,  after  paying  for  labor.  The  total  cut  amounts 
to  near  a  million  cubic  feet  per  year,  and  is  of  excellent  shape  and 
quality. 

Income  and  Expenses:  The  expenses  each  year  exceed  $3.00 
per  acre,  or  $25,000  total.  Over  half  is  for  logging,  about  30  cents 
per  acre  is  for  protection  alone ;  a  like  amount  is  paid  for  local 
taxes,  and  about  20  cents  for  roads. 

The  gross  income  for  years  past  has  been  over  $12.00  per  acre, 
making  a  net  income  of  about  $9.00 — $TO.OO  per  acre  and  year  or 
$70,000 — $80,000  for  the  forest. 

Working  Plans:  This  forest  was  in  good  hands  and  had  good 
care  for  centuries.  A  few  old  stands  testify  to  the  excellence-  in 
silviculture  of  the  men  working  here  over  a  hundred  years  ago. 
The  present  plan  was  first  worked  out  about  1860,  has  been  revised 
every  twenty  years  since.  At  each  revision  the  Forester  in  charge 
of  this  work  goes  over  every  lot,  examines  and  notes  the  condition 
of  every  stand.  In  making  the  plan  he  prepares  a  table,  arranging 
the  stands  according  to  age,  and  picks  out  enough  of  these  stands 
to  make  up  the  cut  of  the  next  20  years ;  for  the  Spruce,  then,  about 
1/5,  for  the  Beech  section  about  1/6  of  the  total  area.  He  also 
makes  suggestions  as  to  planting,  thinning,  logging,  improvements, 


6  FOREST  REGULATION" 

etc.  The  whole  document,  with  maps,  is  submitted  to  the  upper 
office,  approved,  copied,  and  one  copy  kept  at  the  Forester's  office 
to  serve  as  directions  for  the  next  20  years'  work. 

Here  then  is  a  forest  business,  where  lands,  for  the  most  part 
inferior  for  agriculture,  have  been  made  into  an  enterprise  paying 
a  net  rental  of  $9.00  per  acre  and  more,  with  an  income  value,  at 
3%,  therefore,  of  over  $300  per  acre.  The  systematic  work,  the 
faithful  following  of  a  well  conceived  plan,  has  given  to  this  forest 
certain  advantages  which  the  best  of  Silviculture  alone,  could  not 
have  accomplished.  It  has  established  order,  it  lias,  produced  a 
regularity  in  the  age  of  the  different  stands  (in  the  age  classes) 
which  alone  assures  a  regular  yearly  cut  of  timber.  This  same 
regularity  also  assures  that  the  timber  which  is  cut  here  is  of  the 
proper  age,  i.  e.,  of  the  size  desired.  By  a  systematic,  well  planned 
cutting  and  prompt  replanting,  the  stands  of  different  age  are 
properly  mixed  or  distributed  in  the  forest,  and  thus  accidents  pre- 
vented and  the  dangers  reduced.  Through  the  division  into  small 
lots  and  into  small  independent  woods  (Cutting  Series)  Silviculture 
is  given  a  chance  to  get  at  a  stand  in  any  time  and  way  required, 
without  starting  trouble  which  might  spread  over  hundreds  of  acres. 

Having  good  Silviculture  and  the  regularity  of  age  classes 
brought  about  through  systematic  cutting,  the  growth  on  this  forest 
both  in  volume  and  quality  is  about  as  large  as  Site  and  Species 
permit,  since  there  are  no  old,  overripe,  and  defective  stands  which 
would  make  little  or  no  growth.  Moreover,  this  same  regularity 
assures  this  growth,  and  a  regular  yearly  income  on  the  smallest 
amount  of  timber  capital  upon  which,  under  these  conditions,  this 
growth  and  income  can  be  made. 

Regulation,  together  with  good  Silviculture,  has  made  here  a 
splendid  property,  with  a  large  income  and  has  made  it  as  safe  an 
investment  as  a  forest  property  can  well  become.  A  well  planned 
and  well  built  system  of  roads  have  made  it  possible  to  utilize  every- 
thing to  good  advantage  and  easily  doubled  the  stumpage  value  of 
every  tree  in  the  forest.  Without  this,  the  material  cut  in  thinnings 
would  be  mostly  valueless,  and  even  the  old  stands  would  have  to 
be  cut  in  much  larger  bodies  to  pay  in  logging. 

But,  while  the  present  good  conditions  of  this  forest  are  due, 
in  a  large  measure,  to  Regulation  or  the  orderly  business-like  treat- 
ment of  this  property,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  it  was  due  to 


OKRMAN"   T-ORKST  7 

any  particular  Formula  or  Theory  of  Regulating  the  Cut,  it  was 
not  even  largely  due  to  the  Working  Plan  of  1860  and  the  revisions 
since,  for  this  forest  was  in  good  condition,  as  all  the  old  stands 
amply  prove,  as  much  as  80  and  100  years  ago,  and  there  had  been 
good  business  here  long  before  most  of  the  formulae  and  theories 
of  our  books  had  been  published.  It  was  the  orderly  work  of  capable 
men,  faithfully  persisted  in,  which  built  up  this  forest.  On  the 
other  hand  it  is  also  true  that  it  was  Cotta's  teaching  of  Regulation 
which  gave  to  this  forest  (and  hundreds  of  others)  the  proper 
division  into  Lots,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  necessary  road 
system,  and  it  was  also  Cotta's  teaching  which  established  the 
method  of  Regulating  the  Cut  now  followed  here,  converting  an 
unsettled  practice  into  a  well-based,  and  recognized  policy. 

This,  then,  is  the  kind  of  forest  business  which  the  forester 
wishes  to  establish  and  develop  in  the  U.  S.  and  for  which  there 
is  the  best  of  opportunity  and  the  greatest  of  need.  Several  hundred 
million  acres  of  wild  woods  await  proper  development,  and  a  nation 
which  uses  over  half  of  all  the  lumber  cut  in  the  world,  is  dependent 
on  this  development  for  its  future  supplies  of  timber. 


3.     HISTORY. 

Forest  Regulation,  like  Silviculture  (and  farming)  is  not  new. 
To  be  sure,  history  tells  but  little  about  the  arrangement  of  the 
work  in  the  woods.  But  the  excellent  forests  which  were  built  up 
and  of  which  at  present  some  old  stands  date  back  200  years  to 
.testify  to  good  Silviculture,  at  least ;  then  also  the  supply  of  good 
timber  continuing  for  centuries,  as  recorded  in  the  history  of  cities 
like  Zurich,  Frankfort,  Nuremberg,  Vienna,  etc.,  and  the  timber 
business  of  the  Rhine  and  other  rivers,  and  lastly  the  scattered 
fragments  of  direct  written  record,  all  these  clearly  show  that  an 
orderly  procedure  in  starting,  caring  for  and  in  harvesting  the  crop 
developed  early.  In  1359  the  forest  of  the  City  of  Ehrfurth  was 
divided  into  seven  parts,  to  be  worked  over  in  regular  order.  In 
1422  the  City  Council  of  Zurich  decided  that  the  cut  of  the  Sihlwald 
shall  not  exceed  20,000  pieces  of  timber  per  year,  probably  the 
oldest  recorded  volume  regulation  known.  In  1630  a  regular  system 
of  bookkeeping  was  started  in  this  same  forest  and  in  1696  the  first 


8  FOREST  REGULATION 

regular  written  Working  Plan  was  made  for  this  property.  The 
commission  created  for  this  purpose  decided  on  a  Volume  to  cut 
each  year  and  this  cut  was  continued  up  to  1835,  and  has  not  been 
modified  very  much  to  the  present  time.  Since  a  great  deal  of  the 
forest  about  town  and  village  were  coppice  woods  where  a  piece 
is  cut  clear  each  year  and  thus  an  Area  Regulation  grows  of  itself, 
the  regulation  by  setting  a  definite  volume  was  probably  the  excep- 
tion, and  no  doubt  Schwappach  is  right  when  he  states  that  Area 
Regulation  was  the  rule  from  about  the  year  1300  to  1800. 

The  Regulation  or  the  preparation  and  development  of  Work- 
ing Plans  for  the  forest  was  a  matter  of  slow  growth,  in  keeping 
with  the  slow  progress  in  all  directions.  Before  railroads  came  into 
general  use,  i.  e.,  before  about  1840,  even  the  building  of  highways 
was  restricted  to  a  few  trunk  lines,  and  most  of  the  country  roads 
were  almost  useless  for  heavy  hauling,  and  thus  land-transportation 
of  timber  limited  to  very  short  haul  with  little  efficiency.  As  a 
result  of  these  conditions,  the  woods  about  the  villages  and  towns 
were  largely  overcut,  and  those  a  few  miles  away  were  hardly  used 
at  all,  unless  the  timber  was  Spruce  or  Pine  and  could  be  driven  on 
the  stream. 

The  income  from  forests  was  very  small,  in  many  places  the 
grazing  and  game  being  worth  more  than  the  timber.  The  net 
income  in  the  State  Forests  of  Wurttemberg  well  illustrates  what 
these  conditions  were  even  after  the  year  1800 : 

NET  INCOME  PER 
YEAR.  ACRE  AND  YEAR. 

1820  to  '24  $0.55 

1830  to  '34  0.70 

1840  to  '44  i .  79 

1850  to  '54  i-05 

1860  to  '64  3.16 

1870  to  '74  3.62 

while  today  the  average  net  income  is  more  than  $6.00  per  acre 
and  year. 

\Yith  net  incomes  generally  less  than  25  cents  per  acre  and  year, 
the  great  body  of  the  German  forests  was  not  in  a  condition  for 
better  methods,  either  in  Silviculture  or  in  Regulation  or  business. 
With  the  rapid  progress  of  the  past  century,  the  increase  in  popula- 


HISTORIC   SKETCH  9 

tion.  the  development  socially  and  industrially,  with  highway, 
railway  and  canal  building,  the  price  of  wood  advanced,  and  'even 
the  remote  woods  could  be  made  valuable.  It  no  longer  paid  to 
wait  for  natural  reproduction  in  badly  treated,  half-wild  woods. 
Clear  Cut  and  planting  became  the  rule ;  the  old  woods  roads,  often 
half  slide,  half  road,  were  abolished,  well  planned  and  well  located 
roads  were  built  and  every  lot  was  made  accessible  to  good  wagon 
and  sleigh  haul.  These  developments  cost  vast  sums  of  money,  and 
for  years  the  net  income  was  low  accordingly,  but  nowr  they  are 
largely  finished,  and  the  income  is  going  up  rapidly  and  steadily  in 
the  State  Forests  of  every  State  of  the  German  Empire. 

Modern  Forest  Regulation  as  taught  in  the  text  books  of  today 
is  a  development  of  the  last  150  years.  As  early  as  1740  Jacobi 
taught  Area  Regulation  with  reduced  areas ;  Frederick  the  Great 
ordered  the  division  of  the  Pine  woods  of  Prussia  into  Fixed  Yearly 
Cuts  and  about  the  same  time  Beckman  taught  Volume  Regulation. 
In  1795  the  elder  Plartig  published  his  work  on  Volume  Regulation, 
and  in  1819  introduced  this  method  officially  in  the  Prussian  State 
Forests.  In  1804  Cotta  published  his  Area  Allotment  and  laid  the 
foundation  to  the  Limited  Allotment,  or  the  "Judeich  Method"  (of 
Schlich)  which,  with  slight  variations,  is  today  the  official  Method 
of  the  State  Forests  of  nearly  all  German  States.  But  to  Cotta  the 
Working  Plan  was  more  than  merely  a  Regulation  of  the  Cut  in 
Volume  or  Area ;  he  insisted  that  a  proper  division  of  the  forest 
into  Lots  and  into  independent  parts  (Cutting  Series)  and  then 
also  a  proper  road  building,  the  faithful  following  of  the  Working 
Plan  and  a  regular  revision  of  this  Plan  to  adapt  it  to  the  ever 
changing  conditions  of  the  forest,  were  of  far  more  importance  than 
the  mere  estimate  or  calculation  of  the  volume  of  timber  which 
might  be  taken  yearly  from  a  forest  in  a  particular  period. 

All  through  the  past  century  numerous  authors  added  to  the 
literature  of  Regulation,  and  suggested  various  methods  of  Regulat- 
ing the  Cut.  Stress  was  usually  laid  on  the  explanation  of  the 
perfectly  regulated  forest  or  "normal  forest"  as  a  model,  and  also 
on  the  numerous  methods  of  Regulating  the  Cut,  and  this  peculiar 
emphasis  went  so  far  that  even  at  the  present  time  there  is  a  feeling 
abroad  that  the  various  theories  and  formulas  which  have  been 
invented  (for  the  most  part  not  used)  of  Regulating  the  Cut  of 


io  FOREST  REGULATION 

timber,  are  all  there  is  of  importance  to  the  subject  of  Forest  Regu- 
lation. In  recent  times  there  has  been,  even  in  the  textbooks,  a 
return  to  Cotta's  position.  Judeich,  really  the  successor  as  well  as 
pupil  of  Cotta,  follows  the  master ;  but  the  best  exposition  of  the 
knowledge,  appreciation  and  attitude  of  the  well  educated  practice 
as  well  as  that  of  the  administrations  of  the  German  State  Forests, 
is  contained  in  Martin's  Forest  Regulation  of  1910  where  50% 
more  space  is  devoted  to  the  directions  concerning  a  proper  division 
,of  the  forest  in  plain  and  mountains,  than  is  devoted  to  the  methods 
of  Regulating  the  Cut,  all  .put  together. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  apparent  that  Forest  Regulation  is  old. 
that  good,  well  planned  business  existed  in  the  forest  as  much  as 
five  centuries  ago  ;  at  least  in  those  forests  where  a  regular  profitable 
utilization  was  possible.  (Zurich  City  Forest.)  It  also  appears  that 
Regulation  shared  in  the  modern  development,  but  that  the  great 
factor  in  this  progress  lay  in  the  development  of  market  and  trans- 
portation which  gave  to  the  forest  the  reason  for  doing  and  the 
funds  to  do  with. 

Today  there  is  hardly  an  acre  of  state  forest  in  the  German 
Empire,  and  not  an  acre  of  village  or  city  forest  which  has  not  a 
regular,  well  conceived,  carefully  prepared  and  closely  scrutinized 
Working  Plan,  which  must  be  followed  by  the  forester,  and  which 
is  revised  at  regular  set  intervals. 

The  same  is  true  for  all  large  private  holdings  and  applies 
almost  as  much  to  France,  Switzerland,  Austria,  the  Netherlands, 
and  Scandinavia  and  a  large  part  of  Russia  as  it  does  to  Germany. 
In  the  United  States  Forest  Regulation,  thanks  to  the  progres- 
sive policies  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service,  is  well  under  way. 
Millions  of  acres  of  forest  have  been  examined  and  the  age,  size, 
growth  and  behavior  of  most  of  our  important  species  has  been 
studied  on  many  thousands  of  trees,  and  on  thousands  of  stands  of 
timber.  Forest  Regulation,  next  to  Protection,  forms  the  principal 
task  on  the  great  National  Forests,  where  Working  Plans  are  started 
and  developed  for  an  area  of  forest  five  times  as  large  as  that  of 
all  the  forests  of  the  German  Empire,  and  are  developing  with  real 
science  and  support  and  at  a  rate  probably  never  equaled  anywhere 
in  the  world. 


GERMAN    CAS  1C  II 


4.     THE  GERMAN  CASE  OF  REGULATION  OR  PREPAR- 
ATION OF  A  WORKING  PLAN. 

To  understand  the  task  of  preparing  a  Working  Plan  in  a 
German  forest,  and  also  to  appreciate  the  textbooks  on  Regulation 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  in  mind  the  conditions  under  which  the 
work  is  ordinarily  performed. 

a)  Practically  all  cases  of  Regulation  in  the  State  Forests 
(and  these  are  chiefly  considered  in  our  books)  are  tasks  of  Revision. 
If  a  plan  is  due  the  following  conditions  hold : 

The  present  plan  is  20  years  old.  Twenty  years  ago  every 
stand  of  timber  was  examined  ( except,  of  course  those  less  than 
20  years  old).  The  age  of  the  stand  was  even  then  known  from  a 
previous  plan  report ;  the  condition  was  noted ;  if  ripe  or  nearly 
so,  or  in  bad  condition  and  therefore  in  need  of  .cutting,  the  timber 
was  estimated  ;  the  care  which  the  stand  had  received,  i.  e.,  whether 
properly  thinned  or  not,  was  noted.  In  short,  the  stand  was 
described,  and  this  description  is  part  of  the  plan  which  the  Forester 
has  in  his  office.  This  same  plan  indicates  the  stands  which  were 
cut  during  the  last  20  years  and  the  plan  of  planting  tells  what 
was  to  be  put  on  the  land ;  and  the  Forester's  books  show  what  was 
actually  cut  and  planted,  and  when  each  job  was  finished. 

The  Plan  report  and  maps  indicate  and  enumerate  the  Lots  into 
which  the  forest  is  divided,  and  the  independent  woods  ( Cutting 
Series)  which  have  been  established  and  also  the  order  of  cutting 
the  timber  and  the  direction  in  which  this  cut  should  progress  on 
each  of  these  cutting  series. 

The  Plan  of  thinning  indicates  when  the  stands  were  to  be 
thinned,  and  the  book  records  show  exactly  when  each  stand  received 
attention.  The  Plan  report  also  enumerates  and  describes  the  roads, 
the  boundaries,  and  the  division  lines  and  their  condition;  also  the 
houses  and  other  improvements  on  this  property  and  in  what  condi- 
tion they  were  20  years  ago,  the  improvements  which  were  to  be 
made;  the  book  records  show  how  much  of  this  was  actually  done 
or  left  undone. 

The  Book  of  the  office  states  how  much  timber  was  cut,  its 
value  and  the  cost  of  logging.  It  also  tells  of  all  important  accidents, 
bad  seasons,  heavy  storms,  etc. 


12  FORFST   REGULATION 

The  stands  are  practically  all  man-raised,  most  of  them  (over 
90%)  even  age  and  mostly  pure  stands,  easily  accessible  and  easily 
and  conveniently  looked  over  or  examined.  The  thinnings  have 
taken  out  the  crooked,  defective,  etc.,  and  the  stuff  is  therefore  quite 
uniform  and  sound. 

Markets  and  means  of  transportation  are  long  established,  well 
known  and  hardly  need  consideration.  This,  then,  is  the  property 
to  be  examined,  described,  and  reported,  for  which  a  new  forest 
map  is  made,  and  a  Working  Plan  prepared. 

The  Forester  in  charge  of  the  task  has  all  these  data  in  his 
possession,  he  has  a  map  guiding  him  from  one  lot  to  another ;  he 
knows  beforehand  what  kind  of  timber  he  is  to  find  on  each  lot, 
what  its  origin  (planted  or  natural  reproduction),  its  present  age, 
its  condition  20  years  ago,  whether  it  was  cut  and  when,  and  what 
was  planted  on  the  land. 

All  this  is  so  radically  different  from  the  task  of  the  young 
American  Forester,  who  goes  out  into  the  wild  and  unknown  forest. 
And  yet  all  these  conditions  affected  the  men  who  have  written  the 
textbooks,  and  have,  therefore,  made  these  textbooks  assume  condi- 
tions, and  demand  record,  map  and  plan  such  as  it  is  utterly 
impossible  to  supply  under  wild  woods  conditions.  In  fact  these 
impossible  demands  have  often  made  Regulation  seem  "impractic- 
able" and  even  absurd,  so  that  the  young  forester  "lost  heart"  and 
refused  even  to  try  to  do  the  possible  and  feasible. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  above,  that  Regulation  becomes  easier, 
simpler,  and  more  accurate  with  each  revision,  and  herein  particularly 
lies  the  value  of  these  repetitions. 

The  work  is  usually  not  done  by  the  Forester  in  charge  of  the 
particular  woods1  but,  in  all  state  forests,  this  task  falls  to  a  man 
from  the  office  of  Forest  Regulation.  This  office  tries  to  get  around 
once  every  20  years  to  all  forests  of  the  State,  and  it  also  makes  an 
'".Intermediate  Revision",  a  sort  of  special  inspection  every  10 
years.  The  following  tries  to  describe  a  case,  following  modern 
instructions. 

b)     Premises:   Plan  to  be  made  in  1914. 

Forest,  or  "Revier" :  10,000  acres  of  State  Forest,  under 
present  Working  Plan  since  1840. 

1  Much  controversy  here;  Prussian  Instructions  of  1912  change  this,  and 
give  this  task  to  the  local  forester,  as  it  should  be. 


GERMAN    CASE  13 

Level,  rolling  and  some  foothill  country,  north  of  the  Alps. 

Three  Working  Sections,  or  Parts  to  plan  for  separately : 

Xo.  I.  6000  acres  Spruce,  Rotation  100  years ;  Clear  Cut  and 
plant ; 

Xo.  II.     3000  acres  Beech;  Shelterwood ;  Rotation  120  years. 

Xo.JlI.  looo  acres  mixed  forest,  Beech,  Spruce  and  Balsam; 
selection  forest;  period  of  return  15  years,  Rotation  about  150  years. 

Good  market ;  roads ;  country  well  populated. 

c)  Plan  to  be  made  as  the  work  of  a  General  2O-year  Revision. 
("H'aupt  revision''.) 

1)  In  1913  the  Forester  of  this  forest  makes  a  report  in  which 
he  states : 

a)  All  important  results;  cut  of  timber,  income  and  expenses; 
changes,  improvements,  plantations,  accidents,  etc.,  as  recorded  in 
his  office  during  the  last  20  years. 

b)  Recommendations,  or  suggestions  regarding  all  important 
points  in  the  Working  Plan. 

2)  In  1914  a  technically  trained  forester  of  the  Office  of  Forest 
Regulation  is  detailed  to  the  task  of  making  a  new  Working  Plan 
for  this  forest.     He  is  allowed  such  help  as  he  may  need.     He  has 
in  his  possession  the  present  Working  Plan,  maps  and  the  report 
of  the  Forester,  furnishing  all  the  information,  as  spoken  of  above. 
In  most  cases  he  has  never  been  on  this  forest  before. 

d)  Gathering  the   Information.     This  man  goes  over  every 
stand  in  the  forest,  and  describes  the  stand  and  its  present  conditions 
with  the  following  distinctions : 

i )  Description  of  young  and  middle  age,  sound  stands.  This 
is  quite  simple,  he  merely  needs  to  note: 

a)  How  fully  is  the  land  covered  by  timber,  i.  e.,  degree  of 
stocking. 

b)  Health  and  thrift  of  stand. 

c)  Care  it  has  received:  i.  e.,  has  it  been  properly  thinned. 

d)  Age  is  noted,  though  of  course  he  knows  this   from  the 
records. 

e)  Suggestions  as  to  what  should  be  done. 

This  part  of  the  work  goes  fast ;  it  is  chiefly  a  matter  of  travel, 
for  the  quality  of  the  work  depends  on  how  much  of  each  stand  he 
has  actually  seen,  and  in  these  dense  forests,  in  young  stands,  the 
distance  of  vision  is  not  great. 


14  FOREST  REGULATION 

2)  Ripe  stands,  i.  e.,  those  of  the  last  age  class,  in  Spruce, 
here  80-100  years  old,  he  estimates  by  samples;  in  some  cases  he 
calipers   and   gets   volume,    quality   and   thus   value   by    the   Urich 
method  ;  in  other  cases  he  merely  states  degree  of  stocking  and  uses 
the  Yield  tables  to  determine  the  amount  of  timber  on  the  lot.     He 
also   notes    condition   of   stand,    and   makes    suggestions   as   to    its 
treatment,  i.  e.,  whether  to  hurry  about  cutting,  etc.     In  many  cases 
he  examines  the  stand  for  its  growth,  using  borings  and  Schneider's 
formula. 

3)  The   Description  of  Defective   stands   and   stands   where 
the  growth  is  evidently  poor,  and  also  open  stands,  where  wind, 
snow,  etc.,  have  opened  and  reduced  the  cover  to  0.6  or  below  in 
density.      Stands  of  this  kind  require  much  extra  work,   for  they 
must  not  merely  be  seen  but  must  be  studied.     He  estimates  the 
whole  stand  ;  determines  density  or  degree  of  stocking ;  the  age  he 
has  from  his  records ;  he  tests  the  growth  by  borings,  and  finally  he 
decides  as  to  the  best  treatment.     If  the  stand  is  very  poor,  and  is 
making  no  growth  of  value,  he  suggests  its  removal  during  the 
next  10  years,  with  suitable  re-planting.     It  is  particularly  this  class 
of    stands   which   taxes   the   man's   knowledge   and    draws    on   his 
experience. 

4)  The  Description  of  the  Selection  forest.     Here  things  are 
not  so  simple  even  if  the  forest  is  in  good  condition.     The  work 
needs  to  be  done  more  in  detail  and  it  also  requires  more  care  and 
judgment.     Old  and  young  is  mixed  on  the  same  acre,  the  picture 
is  one  of  endless  variation  and  with  every  step,  the  composition,  and 
age  classes   (here  really  size-classes)   change  in  their  relative  pro- 
portions. 

Here  each  cut  takes : 

Ripe  Stuff,  i.  e.,  trees  over  certain  sizes;  (harvest). 

Inferior  and  defective  stuff;  (improvement  cut). 

Thinnings  of  good  material  and  the  cut  also  should  stimulate  or 
assist  reproduction.  Whether  this  has  been  done  and  done  well, 
whether  there  was  left  enough  of  timber  per  acre  to  secure  good 
growth,  whether  the  age  classes  are  well  represented,  and  other 
related  points  need  to  be  judged  by  the  man  who  examines  and 
describes  these  stands. 

5)  The  description  is  made  in  a  Manual  or  on  loose  sheets, 
each  lot  receiving  its  own  sheet  or  double  page  with  printed  form, 
which  reads  about  as  follows : 


GERMAN    CASE 


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0    ^ 

1 6  FOREST  REGULATION 

6)  Improvements;  the  boundary  and  division  lines,  the  roads 
and  buildings,  nursery,  etc.,  are  inspected  and  their  condition  briefly 
noted  and  suggestions  added. 

In  rare  cases,  the  division  is  not  found  satisfactory,  and 
occasionally  parts  of  the  boundary  or  division  lines  are  re-run  fo, 
verification  or  correction.  Where  radical  changes  in  the  division 
are  indicated,  the  matter  is  first  put  on  map  with  recommendations 
and  if  approved,  a  change  is  made,  new  lines  run  and  blazed,  or,  in 
young  stuff,  at  once  cleared  and  opened. 

7)  Outside   Conditions,   of  market,   labor,  transportation  are 
not  studied,  ordinarily,  by  this  man,  but  the  office  depends  for  this 
kind  of  information  on  the  local  forester  and  his  report. 

e)  Compilation  of  the  Information.-'  The  forester  in  charge 
of  this  Working  Plan  work  now  has : 

1 )  Detail  Description  of  every  stand  on  the  property,  say  about 
250  sheets. 

2)  Notes  regarding  improvements,   roads,  buildings,   nursery, 
etc.,  and  possibly  outside  affairs  affecting  utilization. 

3)  Information  from  former  reports  and  plans.    This  informa- 
tion is  compiled  into  a  brief  general  report,  and  then  worked  into  a 
Working  Plan.     These  two,  Report  and  Plan  are  not  kept  clearly 
separated  as  a  rule. 

i)  General  Report.  Here  are  repeated  .numerous  items,  long 
known,  and  stated,  or  repeated  in  each  plan  for  sake  of  complete- 
ness and  for  use  of  persons  at  a  distance,  therefore  not  familiar  with 
this  particular  forest  and  its  surroundings. 

Items  here  are :  name  of  forest  or  revier :  area  total ;  area  forest 
land,  waste  land,  area  wooded,  and  bare;  topography,  climate,  at 
least  special  points  of  interest  in  growing  timber:  character  of  land, 
soil,  drainage;  market;  transportation;  labor;  difficulties  in  pro- 
tection, etc. 

Then  also  improvements ;  divisions  of  the  forests ;  this  also 
being  shown  on  maps. 

Special  attention  is  paid  to  Rotation  and  to  the  Species.  Each 
plan  carefully  considers  whether  the  Species  grown  here  are  the 
best  suited  to  the  land  and  to  market,  etc.,  and  also  whether  any 
particular  Lot  should  or  should  not  continue  to  be  stocked  with 
the  timber  now  on  the  ground,  and  whether  the  age  of  100  years  is 
the  right  age  at  which  to  cut  the  Spruce,  etc. 


GERMAN    CASK 


Finally  there  is  added  a  compilation  of  income  and  expenses 
taken  from  the  records  of  the  office,  and  usually  an  enumeration 
of  the  men  or  staff  regularly  employed.  Of  the  maps  the  one 
representing  the  stands,  their  species  and  age  (by  colors)  is  renewed 
and  brought  up-to-date.  Then  there  is  worked  out  for  each  Work- 
ing Section  (except  the  Selection  forest)  : 

2)  Table  of  Age  Classes;  which  takes  on  about  the  following 
form. 

WORKING  SECTION  I,  SPRUCE,  ROTATION  100  YEARS. 


Age 

Lot 

Age 

Class 

Age 
Class 

Age 
Class 

Age 
Class 

Age 

Class 

Class 
VI  & 

Area 

and 

Area 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

older 

cut,  & 

Sub- 

acres. 

1-20 

21-40 

41-60 

61-80 

81-100 

over 

bare 

lot. 

years 

years 

years 

years 

years 

100 

now 

acres. 

acres. 

acres. 

acres. 

acres. 

acres. 

years 

acres. 

i.  a 

40 



40 





. 





i.b 

35 





35 





3-  a 

20 





20 



3-b 

30 

—  - 







30 

etc. 

etc. 

Total  is: 

1  700 

1  100 

1300 

900 

800 

200 

. 

Should  be: 

I2CO 

1  200 

1200 

i2oa 

1  200 

The  addition  of  these  tables  presents  the  Age  Class  conditions, 
;and  tells  the  forester  at  a  glance  how  much  land  is  stocked  with 
Spruce  of  the  different  ages  and  how  far  the  age  classes  are  irregu- 
lar. Thus  in  the  above  case,  age  class  I  has  too  much  by  about 
500  acres,  etc. 

3)  Table  of  Sites,  i.  e.,  a  table  showing  the  quality  of  land  on 
different  parts  of  the  property.     This  table  takes  about  the  same 
form  as  the  table  of  age  classes,  the  Sites,  usually  I-V,  taking  the 
place  of  age  classes,  and  compiled  directly  from  the  detail  descrip- 
tion of  the  Lots.    This  important  table  tells  how  much  good,  medium 
and  poor  forest  land  there  is  on  the  property,  the  criterion  here  being 
the  height  of  trees  of  given  age,  and  still  more  the  volume  of  timber 
on  a  fully  stocked  acre  of  a  certain  age. 

4)  Stand  Table.     This  is  an  incomplete  table;  it  brings  to- 
gether only  the  stands  which  are  now  ripe,  and  also  all  stands  which 


i8 


FOREST  REGULATION 


are  in  poor  condition  and  should  be  cut  during  the  next  20  years. 
The  information  is  first  gathered  from  the  table  of  Age  Classes 
(see  above)  and  then  corrected  by  the  original  field  descriptions. 
At  this  point  the  good  sense  and  training  of  the  forester  are  very 
much  needed.  The  aim  here  in  the  Spruce  Section  is  to  cut  only 
about  1200  acres  in  the  next  20  years,  to  secure,  gradually,  a  greater 
regularity  in  Age  Classes,  this  being  the  normal  area  to  cut  in  this 
Working  Section,  i.  e.,  6000/100  X  20  =  1200.  Whether  or  not  it 
is  good  policy  here  to  cut  the  1200  acres  during  the  next  20  years 
is  quite  an  important  question  and  needs  a  careful  consideration 
of  the  whole  situation.  Since  both  the  4th  and  the  5th  Age  Class 
are  deficient  and  the  3rd  contains  only  100  acres  more  than  it 
should,  it  would  seem  better  to  save  a  little  during  the  first  20,  and 
probably  even  during  the  second  20  years  period.  After  deciding 
on  the  total  area,  it  is  necessary  to  decide  what  stands  to  take  and 
what  stands  to  leave  for  another  period.  In  cases  where  a  con- 
siderable number  of  defective,  injured  stands  make  up  a  large 
portion  of  the  older  stands  this  choice  is  anything  but  simple,  and 
many  a  good  forester  has  chafed  for  years  ^  because  at  the  last 
Revision  the  plan  required  him  to  hold  a  lot  of  stuff  which  is 
diseased  and  dying  in  spite  of  all  the  care  possible. 

The  stand  table  commonly  takes  on  about  the  following  form : 


WORKING  SECTION  I,  SPRUCE,  ROTATION  100  YEARS. 
STANDS  SELECTED  EOR  YEARS  1914-1933.    (To  BE  REVISED  IN  1924.) 


Volume  of  Timber. 

Lot 

Total    Volume 
when  it 

How  Volume 

Growth 

•in 

At 

Growth 

and 

Area 

Age 

present 

in  10 

will   be  cut 

and 

Value 

Sub- 

acres. 

years. 

years 

Growth   were 

in 

lot. 

per 

total 

per 

total 

per 

total 

'determined. 

per 

acre 

cu.  ft. 

acre 

cu.  ft. 

acre 

cu.  ft. 

cent. 

M. 

M. 

M. 

Vol.    estimated, 

i.  a 

40 

105 

7 

280 

c.5 

20 

7-5 

300 

growth 

1.2 

by  boring. 

Vol.  by  Yield 

table 

i.b 

30 

93 

6 

180 

0.8 

*4 

6.8 

204 

Growth    by 

2.9 

yield    table. 

Etc.,  etc., 


GERMAN  CASK 


Where  the  Age  Classes  and  conditions  generally  are  very  irregu- 
lar, as  they  sometimes  are  even  in  well  managed  forests,  after  insect- 
calamities,  etc.,  the  stand  table  takes  on  a  different  form.  It  is  more 
comprehensive,  takes  in  all  the  stands  of  the  forest,  or  at  least  all 
over  40  years,  in  the  case  here  considered.  The  following  sample 
will  illustrate  this : 

AREA  ALLOTMENT  FOR  WORKING  SECTION  No.  I. 
SPRUCE,  ROTATION  100  YEARS. 


Period 

Period 

Period 

Period 

Period 

Lot 

5 

and 

Area 

Age 

cut  in 

2 

cut  in 

3 

cut  in 

4 
cut  in 

cut  in 

Remarks. 

Sub- 
lot. 

acres. 

years. 

1914-33 

1934-53 

1954-73 

1974-93 

1994- 
2013 

acres. 

acres. 

acres. 

acres. 

acres. 

i.  a 

40 

35 







40 



Q 

X-Q 

O  — 

T)                                        .                     J 

2 

60 

52 

—  ,  — 

. 

60 



remove 

3.  a 

50 

15 

• 





50 

early. 

3-b 

40 

87 

40 

• 



• 

Etc.,  etc.,  Etc. 

This  table  resembles  the  Table  of  Age  Classes,  but  is  amply 
annotated  with  statements  concerning  the  character  of  each  stand 
and  directions  for  its  treatment.  It  thus  presents  the  conditions  of 
area  and  requirements  of  all  the  stands  of  the  forest  in  a  convenient 
form,  and  facilitates  the  selection  of  stands  for  the  next  20  years, 
by  indicating  what  may  be  expected  here  not  only  at  the  end  of  the 
next  20  years  but  for  the  next  60  and  more  years,  in  fact,  in  the 
above  table  for  the  entire  100  years  to  come.  There  is  no  thought  of 
making  this  allotment  binding;  it  is  merely  to  serve  the  purpose 
above  stated,  and  this  table  is  re-constructed  every  20  years  in 
keeping  with  the  conditions  which  will  then  be  found.  When  the 
stands  for  the  next  20  years  are  finally  selected,  they  are  worked  over 
once  more  and  a  Detail  Plan  of  Cutting  is  prepared,  which  tabulates 
the  stands  to  be  taken  during  the  first  10  years.  The  following 
illustrates  this  table: 


20  FORKST  REGULATION 

5)   Detail  Cutting  Plan  for  the  years  1914-1923. 

WORKING  SECTION  II,  BEECH,  ROTATION  120  YEARS. 


Lot 
and 
Su<b-lot. 

Area 

acres. 

Volume 
estimated 
M.  cu.  ft. 

Directions  concerning  the  manner  of  cutting. 
(Rules   for  cutting.) 

17.  c 

400 

200 

Take  l/$  at  first  cut;  hasten 
help  if  need  be,  artificially. 

reproduction  ; 

28.  b 

100 

450 

Finish  clearing  of  old  stuff, 
trees  for  large  timber. 

but  leave  few 

28.  c 

80 

375 

Reproduce     slowly,     avoid 
storm;  exposed  position. 

damage     from 

Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 


This  is  a  most  important  table ;  it  tells  the  forester  exactly  what 
to  do,  where  to  cut,  etc. 

A  table,  practically  like  the  foregoing  is  prepared  for  the  Plan 
of  Thinning  to  be  done  during  the  next  10  years. 

6)  The  Selection  Forest  receives  its  own  Plan.  This  is  usually 
a  simple  area  table  which  directs  that  each  year  about  1/15  part  of 
the  area  is  cut  over.  Since  the  timber  is  not  all  cut  at  any  one  time 
there  is  need  for  setting  some  volume  as  the  amount  to  take  per 
acre.  Since  the  "Return"  here  is  every  15  years,  the  cut  should 
take  about  15  years  growth  each  time  going  over  the  forest.  If 
an  acre  is  estimated  to  produce  75  cu.  ft.  per  year,  then  the  cut, 
each  time,  should  take  about  I5X75-"IO25  cu.  ft.  per  acre  of 
forest  actually  cut  over.  This  plan  appears  about  as  follows : 

Working  Section  No.  Ill,  Selection,  Rotation  about  150  y. ; 
Diam.  of  ripe  Beech — 16";  Spruce — 14";  Balsam — 16" '. 

Average  Growth  per  acre  estimated  at  75  cu.  ft.  per  acre. 

Cut,  therefore,  takes  about  1000  cu.  ft.  per  acre,  at  each  Return. 

Diameter  limit  merely  a  criterion  in  thrifty  good  timber,  i.  e., 
no  good  Beech  cut  under  16"  except  in  thinning. 


GERMAN  CASK 
Cutting  Plan  for  1914-1923. 


21 


Estimated 

Cut  lots 

Area 

Volume 

Year. 

or  parts 

cut 

to  cut 

Directions  for  cutting. 

of  lots. 

acres. 

per  acre 

total 

M.  ft.  c. 

M.  ft.  c. 

This    area    has    been    cut 

lot  i 

heavily     last     two     returns, 

1914 

part  of  2 

70 

0.8 

56 

growing    stock    below    nor- 

mal .'.  cut  light. 

Growing      stock      slightly 

1915 

part  lot  2 
part  lot  3 

62 

0.9 

54 

below  normal,  and  deficient 
in  large  stuff. 

1916 

part  lot  3 
all  lot  4 

63 

i.i 

74-8 

Stocked    about   right,   but 
has  too  much  large  stuff. 

For  the  entire  forest  (i.  e.,  not  for  each  Working  Section  sepa- 
rately) there  is  then  prepared: 

7)   Plan  of  Planting,  usually  in  the  following  form  : 
PLANTING  PLAN  FOR  1914-1923. 


Lot 
and 
Sub-lot. 

Area. 

What   is   to   be   done. 

Material  to  use. 

Seed. 

Plants   1000. 

Spruce. 

Balsam. 

Beech. 

Pine, 

7.  a 

3'3 

Land,  clear  cut. 



70 



;  

19.  b 

40 

Correct     fail     spots    with 
good  5   year   stock. 

20 

23.  a 

60 

Assist    nat.    reproduction, 
till  and  apply  lime. 

6000 
Beech 

. 







Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

The  plan  for  the  nursery  is  added  here,  or  a  separate  one  is 
made. 

8)  Plan  for  Roads.  This  also  is  a  forecast  for  the  next  10  years 
(not  the  whole  20  years  of  the  life  of  the  Working  Plan)  and  usually 
takes  in  roads,  trails  (footpaths)  and  also  chutes,  slides,  logging  rail- 
ways, so  that  there  is  hardly  a  limit  here,  and  the  plan  might  as  well 
be  called  one  of  improvements. 

The  form  is  usually  very  simple,  so  that  it  does  not  replace 
detail  map  and  specifications  in  cases  like  railroad,  chute,  etc.,  but 
merely  keeps  the  tasks  clearly  before  forester  and  inspector. 


22  FOREST  REGULATION 

PLAN  OK  ROADS  AND  OTHER  IMPROVEMENTS  FOR  1914-1923. 


Location. 

Description    of    Improvement. 

Length 

or 

area. 

Cost 

per 
unit 

$ 

Total 

c> 

Y 

Connects 
main    road 
in  lot  5  with 
lot   19 

Woods  road,  to  be  dressed  with 
broken  stone  8  ft.  wide. 

1*4  mile 

1000 

1225 

Lot   12  and 
13 

Dry,  wooden  chute  to  be  re- 
paired. 

l/2  mile 

400 

203 

On  main  road 
facing  lot 
17 

Clear  for  'banking  ground  to 
be  used  1915  and  after  that. 

V-2  acre 

80 

40 

Headquarters 
to    Ranger 
Smith's 

Path  to  be  repaired  and  dressed 
with  gravel  in  places. 

•^A 

60 

105 

Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

To  these  several  plans  are  added,  normally : 

9)  Volume  and  Yield  tables  used  on  the  forest,  giving  growth 
of  tree  and  stand  of  the  species  raised  here  in  recent  time,  also  a 
table  of  value  growth,  and  grades,  either  separate  or  added  to  the 
regular  yield  tables.  Then  also  maps ;  land  map ;  topographic  detail 
map ;  stand  map,  this  latter  representing  in  colors  the  stands  on 
different  lots  and  indicating  species  and  age  class.  Commonly  also 
a  map  of  forest  division,  simply  giving  lot,  sublots,  cutting  series  and 
working  sections.  These  maps  are  all  merely  corrected  copies  of  the 
old  set  of  maps.  Different  States  have  different  ways  of  presenta- 
tion, and  differ  in  the  amount  of.  details  added  to  these  Plans.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  Saxony,  and  Wiirttemberg,  the  two  most 
advanced  States  as  regards  forestry,  have  probably  the  simplest 
forms,  and  the  smallest  amount  of  details. 

TO)  This  body  of  documents  is  fastened  together  and  forms 
the  complete  Working  Plan.  It  is  really  made  "up  of  four  more  or 
less  distinct  parts : 

a)  Detail  Report  or  Descriptions,  kept  separate. 

b)  General  Report 

c)  General  Plans       Hastened  together. 

d)  Detail  Plans 


GERMAN    CASE  23 

This  document  is  submitted  to  the  local  Forester,  where  it  receives 
the  most  critical  examination.  It  then  goes  to  the  office  of  "Regula- 
tion, and,  if  no  controversies  come  up,  receives  the  approval  of  the 
highest  official.  It  is  copied,  and  one  copy  goes  to  the  local  Forester 
w'ho  then  works  according  to  .this  plan  for  the  next  20  years.  At 
the  end  of  10  years  there  is  a  special  inspection  and,  at  least  in  some 
states  (Bavaria)  there  is  a  new  allotment  of  Stands,  so  as  to  give 
the  forester  a  considerable  number  of  stands  to  select  from  each 
year.  At  this  revision  new  detail  plans  are  made. 

IT)  The  above  outline  suffices  to  show  that  the  task  of  regula- 
tion as  described  in  the  textbook  is  feasible  and  perfectly  practical ; 
that  each  revision  merely  improves  the  plan ;  that  this  new  plan  does 
particularly  two  things : 

a)  It  keeps  the  office  (owner)  informed  of  the  exact  condition 
of  every  stand  on  the  property. 

b)  It  adapts  the  work  in  the  forest  to  these  conditions.     The 
above  also  shows,  why  the  German  textbook  does  not  go  into  the 
matter  of  survey,  timber  estimating  and  description  such  as  is  needed 
in  our  wild  woods,  and  why  therefore  these  textbooks  seem  so  far 
removed  from  the  actual  task  of  the  American  Forester. 


PART  II.  THE  REPORT  ON  THE 
PROPERTY. 


The  preparation  of  a  Forest  Working  Plan,  as  seen  from  the 
above,  involves  two  quite  distinct  tasks : 

The  gathering  of  the  Information  an^l  compiling  this  into  a 
Report  on  the  Property. 

The  making  of  the  Plans  for  the  Property. 

In  all  cases  the  field  work  of  gathering  the  necessary  informa- 
tion is  by  far  the  greater  task.  In  the  United  States  with  our  wild 
woods  conditions  the  plan  itself  must  often  be  left  tentative,  and 
seems  so  crude  that  the  whole  Working  Plan  really  appears  as 
nothing  more  than  a  survey  and  description  of  the  property  or  a 
report  on  the  property,  though,  of  course,  this  is  not  true  and  is- 
merely  a  case  of  losing  sight  of  the  real  object  for  which  the  infor- 
mation was  collected.  Better  to  appreciate  the  conditions  in  the 
United  States  which  demand  or  lead  to  a  Working  Plan,  and  under 
which  such  a  Plan  is  worked  out,  and  also  to  see  more  clearly  what 
such  a  Working  Plan  can  and  should  contain  and  what  it  should 
accomplish,  it  may  be  well  briefly  to  review  the  circumstances  and 
the  process  of  a  typical  American  case.  A  tract  of  private  property, 
rather  than  a  State  or  National  forest  is  chosen,  because  these  latter 
forms  of  ownership  involve  a  large  organization  where  the  making 
of  a  Working  Plan,  now,  is  merely  one  more  task  in  the  great 
routine  of  work. 

A.    THE  AMERICAN  CASE. 

i)  The  assumption  here  is  that  a  man  in  New  York  owns 
forest  lands  in  Northern  Michigan ;  that  he  is  not,  at  present,  in  the 
business  of  lumbering,  and  that  he  wishes  to  know  more  about  the 
property,  with  the  possibility  of  converting  this  property  into  a 
regular  forest  business. 


AMERICAN   CASE  25 

When  buying  this  land  it  was  cruised  in  the  ordinary  way  and 
he  has,  therefore,  about  the  following  information: 

Area:  30,000  acres,  all  surveyed  land  (United  States  Survey) 
practically  solid ;  in  two  Townships. 

Forest  and  Lands:  about  25%  originally  pine  on  sandy  lands, 
now  cut  and  the  land  burned  over.  About  60%  uncut  hardwood 
and  Hemlock  on  loam  and  clay  lands  with  about  6  M.  ft.  merchant- 
able timber.  About  15%  of  Tamarack  and  Cedar  Swamps,  esti- 
mated to  average  3  M.  ft. 

His  local  representative  has  informed  him  that  the  saw  fly  is 
destroying  the  Tamarack,  and  that  the  fires  of  1908  injured  part 
of  the  hardwood  forest ;  exact  figures  lacking. 

His  estimates  are  by  4O-acre  tracts  and  usually  include  a  few 
notes  concerning  land  and  topography.  The  property  cost  him 
$450,000  and  is  assessed  at  this  figure.  His  taxes  are  $15  on  every 
$1000  worth  of  property  or  $6750  total ;  his  expenses  for  representa- 
tive, a  local  lawyer,  for  occasional  cruising  to  watch  for  trespass, 
costs  another  $2500  per  year. 

2)  The  owner  sends  for  a  Forester;  and  after  a  brief  interview 
he  decides  that  he  will  pay  the  Forester  $600  for  a  preliminary  report 
on  the  tract  (i.  e.,  two  cents  per  acre).  The  owner  prefers  a  brief 
preliminary  report  because  he  is  not  certain  what  he  should  do  with 
the  property,  and  it  is  the  chief  function,  therefore,  of  this  prelim- 
inary report  to  state  truthfully  and  conservatively  those  facts  which 
the  owner  should  have  in  order  to  judge,  intelligently,  as  to  the  best 
policy  to  pursue. 

The  Forester  now  goes  to  the  locality,  usually  with  letters  and 
maps  and  a  list  of  lands  making  up  the  property,  commonly  as  list 
and  also  in  form  of  township  plats.  His  work  will  arrange  itself 
as  follows : 

a)  Visit  to  local  representative.     Here  he  gets  names  of  men 
who  can  be  helpful,  chiefly  local  cruisers,  persons  to  see  and  to  stop 
with  while  going  over  the  tract,  names  of  county  and  town  officials, 
names  of  timber  people,  loggers,  sawmill  men  and  buyers.    In  many 
cases  he  may  need  county  map  and  town  plats,  usually  obtainable  at 
the  courthouse. 

b)  Examination  of  the  tract.     For  the  purpose  in  hand,  this 
is  a  hasty  survey,  covering  the  30,000  acres  in  about  three  weeks. 


26  FOREST  REGULATION 

He  needs  a  local  man  familiar  with  the  tract,  and  able  to  take  him 
at  least  to  a  fair  number  of  Section  corners  without  special  delay. 
Aside  from  a  number  of  samples,  to  steady  his  judgment,  it  is, 
not  a  deta.il  estimate  or  cruise,  but  an  orderly  covering  of  the  land 
to  ascertain : 

Character  of  land,  topography  and  soil. 

Character  of  forest ;  its  present  condition  on  every  section ; 
proportion  of  swamp,  hardwoods  and  pine  lands. 

In  such  a  cruise  it  is  enough  to  know,  at  any  one  time,  that  it 
is  good  hardwood  forest,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  stop  and  estimate 
the  amount  of  timber  by  species,  etc.  It  is  well  to  verify  a  few 
estimates  of  the  cruise  made  for  the  owner  at  time  of  purchase. 
Matters  of  reproduction,  growth,  and  also  cases  of  burns  are  noted, 
but  not  studied  in  detail. 

c)  Study  of  General  Conditions.  This  is  a  matter  of  canvass 
as  well  as  visit.  Here  the  Forester  learns  about : 

Roads  and  streams  which  may  be  useful  to  the  enterprise ; 
distances  to  railway,  to  sawmill. 

Market  for  the  different  kinds  of  stuff  now  upon  the  land ; 
chance  to  sell  on  stump,  in  log  delivered,  value  of  lumber,  poles, 
ties,  etc. 

Chances  to  get  labor,  wages,  etc.,  to  get  logging  done  by  con- 
tract, and  usual  prices ;  to  get  stuff  manufactured. 

Safety  of  property  from  fire  and  trespass  and  possibilities  to 
make  it  more  safe. 

Agricultural  and  other  development  of  the  district. 

Notes  on  climate,  days  of  sleigh  haul,  usual  depth  of  snow, 
matters  of  frost  (agriculture)  ;  regular  dry  spells,  and  also  recur- 
rence of  dry  seasons.  A  great  deal  of  valuable  matter  is  gathered 
incidentally.  From  the  local  representative  and  still  more  from 
local  people  the  attitude  of  the  people  towards  such  a  large  property 
should  be  ascertained. 

This  outside  study  should  take  about  10  days. 

d)  Compilation  of  this  information  into  a  Report.  This 
report  must  be  very  brief,  and  even  then  it  should  have  the  most 
essential  points  separated  and  categorically  stated  on  one  page. 


AMERICAN   CASE  27 

The  Report  should  cover  at  least  the  following  points : 
Area  and  Location  of  property  with  special  reference  to  Rail- 
way, town,  mill,  settlement  and  also  with  regard  to  distant,  large 
market. 

Transportation :  for  timber  material,  present  rates  to  important  . 
points. 

Business:  development  of  district,  lumbering,  agriculture,  here 
especially  a  reasonable  outlook. 

Land:  its  topography,  soil,  drainage;  value  for  farming; 
climate  and  crops. 

Timber:  merchantable,  timber.  If  old  cruise  appears  satisfac- 
tory compilation  from  this ;  condition  of  timber,  present  stumpage 
value  and  outlook ;  all  on  a  brief,  three  or  four  line  table. 

Growth:  If  no  net  growth  here,  this  should  be  stated.  Price 
growth,  i.  e.,  growth  due  to  increase  in  market  price  for  each  kind, 
for  recent  years. 

Forest:  Age  conditions,  Reproduction,  young  and  middle  age 
(by  sizes)  ;  defective  stuff. 

Improvements  on  the  property :  roads,  etc. 

Exploitation:  Chances  for  labor,  contract  work  in  logging  and 
milling ;  usual  methods.  Climate  and  exploitation,  snow  haul,  depth 
of  snow. 

Protection:  Fire  and  trespass,  also  loss  from  sawfly,  in  this 
case  and  other  troubles ;  dry  spells,  dry  years,  large  fires  in  district. 

Property  and  Forestry :  Location,  size,  form,  whether  land  and 
climate  are  suited  to  forestry ;  advantages  of  market,  and  transporta- 
tion, probable  future  of  district. 

Possible  Plan:  Necessity  to  decide  definitely  on  holding  the 
land :  general  plan  to  cut  over,  protect,  improve,  possible  income  and 
expense ;  development  if  a  plan  is  followed ;  comparison  to  European 
properties  of  same  character  of  soil  and  climate. 

A  State  Map  and  County  Map  should  accompany  this  report  to 
show  general  location,  especially  lines  of  transportation  and  market. 

A  copy  of  the  original  town  plats  showing  streams,  swamps,  etc. 
as  per  old. survey.  On  this  may  well  be  indicated  cut-over  lands,  and 
swamps  by  colored  crayon  and  also  such  roads  as  now  exist. 


28  FOREST  REGULATION 

3)  At  a  second  interview  of  owner  and  forester,  the  important 
points  of  the  above  Report  are  discussed.  If  report  and  .conditions 
prove  satisfactory  the  owner  decides  to  have  a  regular  Working- 
Plan  prepared  at  an  expense  of  not  to  exceed  25  cents  per  acre,  or 
$7500  total. 

The  Forester  now  repeats  his  work,  but  does  everything  in 
detail,  so  that  instead  of  merely  sampling  the  tract  along  the  section 
lines,  he  goes  over  every  4O-acre  tract  at  least  twice,  and,  where 
needed,  he  makes  side-trips,  so  that  he  sees  practically  every  acre  of 
land  on  the  property.  This  detail  study  also  locates  every  corner, 
and  re-establishes  all  lines.  >% 

In  addition,  the  Forester  makes  a  number  of  detail  studies  of 
growth,  of  the  few  important  species. 

With  regard  to  outside  condition,  he  not  only  learns  about  the 
chances  of  getting  logging,  etc.,  done  and  the  general  price,  but  he 
gets  the  names  of  men  ready  to  contract  and  the  prices  at  which 
they  offer  to  work. 

a.  The  Survey  and  Inventory  by  4O-acre  lots  is  made  on 
regular  printed  forms,  one  sheet  to  each  40 ;  and  states : 

The  kinds  or  species  of  timber,  and  the  proportion  of  these  on 
the  4O-acre  tract. 

Age  or  sizes,  represented. 

Amount  of  merchantable  timber ;  above  12  or  14  inches  diameter 
breast  high ;  usually  by  kinds. 

Density  of  timber ;  or  how  fully  is  the  land  covered. 

Condition  of  timber;  shape,  size,  defect,  of  both  merchantable 
and  non-merchantable  stuff. 

Young  stuff ;  reproduction,  sapling  and  pole  stuff. 

Land  ;  topography,  surface,  soil,  drainage. 

Accidental  Conditions ;  burns,  windfall,  bare  land. 

All  this  information  must  be  called  for  in  such  form  that  it  can 
'  readily  be  taken  down  in  the  field,  easily  seen  on  the  sheet,  easily 
taken  off  the  sheet  for  compilation. 

'  On  this  property  there  would  be  about  750  separate  sheets  or 
descriptions  and  it  would  be  useless  for  anyone  to  try  to  learn  about 
this  property  without  compiling  this  mass  into  one  or  more  general 
statements  and  tables,  and  thus  preparing  a  General  Report.  For 


AMERICAN  CASE  29 

this  reason,  the  very  form  on  which  the  field  data  are  noted,  needs 
careful  consideration. 

b.  When  finished,  the  Forester  has : 

1.  750  separate  sheets  of  field  notes. 

2.  About  50  Maps,  detail,  made  in  the  field. 

/     3.    Many  pages  of  figures  collected  to  learn  about  the  growth 
of  timber,  both  as  to  the  individual  tree  and  the  stand  of  trees. 

4.  Also  pages  of  figures  for  Volume  tables. 

5.  Many  pages  of  notes  concerning  outside  affairs. 

The  field  notes  should  be  copied ;  the  growth  figures  and  volume 
tables  compiled  and  made  into  tables  and  diagrams.  Then  this  mass 
of  Detail  information  should  be  compiled  into  a  General  Report. 
This  General  Report  should  be  brief,  it  should  resemble  the 
first  or  former  report,  and  it  may  not  have  a  great  deal  of  additional 
material.  But  it  differs  from  the  first  report  in  the  most  essential 
point:  Tt  is  based  on  actual  detail  knowledge. 

c.  leased  upon  this  Report,  detail  and  general,  the  forester  pre- 
pares a  Working  Plan. 

Phis  Plan  preferably  falls  under  two  heads,  the 

General  Plan  which  outlines  what  is  to  be  done  with  the  prop- 
erty, usually  for  years  ahead  ;  and 

Detailed  Plans  which  tell  what  is  to  be  done  during  the  coming 
year ;  exactly  where  to  cut,  to  build  roads,  etc. 

The  General  Plan  can  and  should  always  cover : 

1.  What  is  to  be  the  policy  of  the  owner:    Hold  the  lands, 
gradually  convert  it  into  forest  business,  but  not  require  more  than 
X%   of  stumpage  receipts  per  year  to  be  put  back  on  the  prop- 
erty, etc. 

2.  Timber  Cutting:    Whether  to  hold,  or  begin  at  once;  sell 
stumpage  or  log  per  contract;  about  how  much  to  cut  over  per 
year,  etc. 

3.  Silviculture:  .If  cut  over  by  logging  the  large  stuff  only, 
then  to  what  diameter  to  cut  the  different  kinds,  how  closely  to  cut 
it  over,  i.  e..  how  much  should  always  be  left  on  the  land;  how 
should  the  stuff  be  marked  where  there  is  no  young  growth,  and 
how,  on  tracts  with  much  young  growth,  etc.     Here  also:  should, 
if  necessary,  a  little  money  be  spent  to  get  rid  of  defective  stuff  and 


30  FOREST  REGULATION 

to  get  rid  of  tops.  Also,  should  a  replanting  be  done,  and  if  so,  with 
what  kinds  and  should  the  stock  be  raised  in  a  nursery  on  the 
property. 

4.  The  best  ways  of  protecting  the  property  ;  what  authority 
should  the  forester  have  to  hire  extra  help  in  danger  season ;  method 
of  paying  help ;  improvements,  especially  telephone,  cabins  to  shelter 
the  men ;  fire  lines  on  the  sand  lands,  etc. 

5.  What  help  is  needed,  how  many  regular  men  should  be  em- 
ployed, what  their  salary  and  duties. 

6.  How  much  money  should  be  allowed  for  the  first  five  years, 
regardless  of  incomes  from  timber,  and  what  should  be  the  maxi- 
mum to  be  allowed. 

7.  Some  estimates  of  income  and  expenses. 

8.  What   records  or  books  should  be  kept  and  what  reports 
made,  and  who  should  inspect  the  property  to  see  that  the  plans  are 
actually  carried  out. 

d.    Detail  Plans.   These  cover  especially  : 

1.  Plan  of  Cutting  the  Timber;  the  areas  to  take  the  coming 
year,  perhaps  also  the  following :    How  it  is  to  be  logged,  by  whom 
and  under  what  conditions  of  scaling,  delivery,  price,  etc.    Here  also 
bark  peeling,  cordwood  cutting,  etc. 

2.  Silviculture;  particularly  the  way  of  marking  the  timber, 
giving  as  detailed  directions  as  possible.    Then,  also,  brush  disposal, 
removal  of  tops  and  defective  stuff    (this  part  of  Cutting  Plan). 
Plan  for  nursery  and  reforestation  for  the  next  few  years,  stating 
definitely  how  large  a  nursery,  what  kinds  to  raise,  what  forties  to 
plant  up,  etc. 

3.  Plan  of  protection,  to  outline  in  all  necessary  detail  exactly 
what  to  do,  whom  to  call  for  help,  how  to  report,  etc. 

4.  Plan  of  Improvements,  i.  e.,  exactly  what  houses,  barns, 
camps,  roads,  telephone  lines  to  build  the  first  year,  and  about  what 
kinds  and  at  what  cost. 

5.  Plan  of  Organization  and  Funds ;    i.  e.,  name  and  number 
of  men  to  employ,  how  much  extra  help,  when,  at  what  pay ;  how 
much  money  to  devote  to  each  line  of  work. 

To  these  Reports  and  Plans  are  added  copies  of  all  maps,  here 
particularly  three  kinds : 


AMERICAN  CASE  31 

1.  Land  Map,  showing  area,  direction  of  lines  and  length,  etc. 

2.  Topographic  Map  showing  improvements. 

3.  Timber  or  Stand  Map  showing  in  colors  at  least  the  three 
types  of  woods,  pine,  hardwood  and  swamp,  as  they  occur  on  the 
forest. 

e.  Third  Conference;  the  Working  Plan  is  now  submitted. 
By  rights,  the  owner  should  have  the  work  inspected,  sampled  and 
verified.  If  found  satisfactory,  it  is  received  and  paid  for. 

This  now  ends  the  task,  and  the  owner  is  free  to  use  these 
documents  as  he  sees  fit.  If  he  does  wish  to  go  into  forestry,  how- 
ever, he  will  find  right  at  the  outset,  that  a  good  forest  Working 
Plan  is  nearly  useless  in  the  hands  of  an  untrained  man.  Such  a 
man  can  use  the  maps  and  the  estimates  and  can  have  the  timber  cut 
and  the  forest  cut  over  in  the  old,  usually  destructive  way,  but  to 
use  a  Working  Plan  and  buil'd  up  a  forest  business  requires  a 
forester. 

But  even  if  the  owner  does  not  go  into  forestry,  he  will  find,  in 
most  cases,  that  the  expenditure  (in  our  case  $8100  for  both 
reports)  is  well  warranted  on  a  property  worth  $450,000,  just  to 
know  what  the  property  really  is,  a  thing  which  no  ordinary  cruiser 
report  ever  enables  him  to  do.  The  cruiser  report  tells  of  logs  and 
land  (not  always  the  latter)  and  leaves  the  forest,  or  the  real  prop- 
ertv  undetermined. 


B.    THE  FIELD  WORK. 

The  gathering  of  the  Information  necessary  as  basis  of  a  Work- 
ing Plan  and  here  summed  up  as  the  Field  Work,  usually  involves 
three  quite  distinct  parts : 

a)  The  Examination  of  the  property,  land  timber  and  im- 
provements. 

b)  Special  Studies,  mostly  studies  of  Growth  and  Behavior  of 
the  most  important  kinds  of  timber  on  the  property. 

c)  Study  of  Outside  Conditions,  such  as  Market,  Means  of 
transportation,  Chance  for  labor,  Matters  of  taxation,  etc. 


32  FOREST  REGULATION 


I.  EXAMINATION  OF  THE  PROPERTY. 

In  the  United  States  the  examination  of  larger  forest  properties 
usually  starts  with  rather  scant  information.  Even  where  the  land 
has  been  honestly  subdivided,  the  maps  are  inadequate,  the  informa- 
tion such  as  the  course  of  streams,  etc.,  is  restricted  to  points  on  the 
section  lines  and  all  information  with  regard  to  the  interior  is 
estimated,  often  merely  assumption.  Topography,  soil,  stand  of 
timber  are  practically  unknown.  In  unsurveyed  or  only  partly  sur- 
veyed districts  these  difficulties  are  materially  increased.  And  yet 
it  may  be  desirable,  even  necessary  to  begin  some  kind  of  definite 
administration  at  once.  Whether  this  leads  to  real  forestry  or 
merely  to  exploitation  does  not  affect  the  case  materially  ;  at  least 
a  reasonable  amount  of  information  must  be  gathered,  to  enable  the 
owner  to  come  to  some  decision,  and  to  make  it  possible  to  do 
business. 

In  such  cases  it  is  not  feasible,  or  even  desirable,  to  wait  for  a 
detailed  examination.  For  even  the  satisfactory  planning  of  this 
detailed  examination  itself  requires  considerable  information  with 
regard  to  survey,  topography  and  general  character  of  the  forest. 
For  these  reasons  the  examination  of  large  forest  properties  in  the 
United  States  generally  involves  two  distinct  steps,  the  Preliminary 
Survey,  and  the  Detail  Survey,  though  the  line  between  these  two 
is  not  clearly  defined. 

i.     The  Preliminary   Survey. 

A  kind  of  exploration  work,  justifies  itself  by  gathering  rapidly 
and  cheaply,  enough  information  to  decide  on  a  policy  and  future 
treatment  of  the  property,  or  to  enable  the  beginning  of  a  Forest 
Administration.  Thus  the  preliminary  surveys  of  some  of  the 
National  Forests,  made  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey 
covered  several  hundred  thousand  acres  of  unsurveyed  country  in  a 
single  summer.  It  seemed  sufficient  to  learn  the  general  topography, 
the  streams  and  their  valleys,  the  amount  or  proportion  of  forest, 
brush,  burns,  and  \vaste  lands  in  each  valley ;  the  soil  and  drainage, 
altitude,  and  changes  of  woods  with  this ;  the  accessibility,  and  a 
few  points  regarding  the  use  thus  far  made  of  these  areas. 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEY  33 

In  surveyed  districts,  these  preliminary  surveys  usually  sampled 
every  section.  In  other  cases  such  preliminary  surveys  establish 
systems  of  base  lines  or  "control  lines"  from  which  caliper  crews 
work  out  in  both  directions  and  cover  the  country  in  a  regular  order, 
and  actually  measure  the  timber  on  a  certain  per  cent  of  the  total 
property,  and  map  and  describe  the  soil  topography,  fofest  types, 
etc.  Generally  these  preliminary  surveys  cost  less  than  3  cents  per 
acre  including  office  work  of  compilation  and  map  work ;  they  are 
necessary  and  useful.  They  merely  sample  by  covering  usually  less 
than  5  per  cent  of  the  area ;  they  do  not  leave  a  permanent  survey  or 
subdivision  on  the  ground  ;  they  are  no't  easily  controlled  or  checked  ; 
any  verification  requires  a  repetition  of  a  large  part  of  the  work,  and 
€ven  then  it  is  usually  impossible,  to  decide  the  merit  of  the  case,  for. 
the  inspection  rarely  follows  the  same  line  followed  by  the  crew  in 
the  first  place.  Leaving  no  permanent  survey  marks,  a  later  repeti- 
tion, verification  or  correction  is  impossible,  unless  the  matter  of 
land  survey  is  specially  attended  to.  Nevertheless  the  results  are 
useful,  and  often  surprisingly  accurate.  The  maps  and  descriptions 
alone  justify  the  effort.  Where  the  strip  method  and  caliper  crew 
are  employed,  the  results  are  accurate  for  the  samples  actually 
measured,  but  they  are  inference  for  the  rest.  In  this  way  the 
estimate  of  timber,  for  instance,  may  be  fairly  good  as  an  average 
for  a  large  area  (township,  stream — valley)  but  may  not  apply  at 
all  to  a  particular  forty-acre  tract.  But  in  actual  operations,  log- 
ging, etc.,  it  is  usually  desirable  to  know  just  what  the  forest  is  on 
a  given  forty  and  even  the  lumbermen  have  found  it  necessary, 
therefore,  to  amplify  the  information  by  a  detailed  examination,  an 
estimate  by  forties. 

With  these  limitations,  the  Preliminary  Survey  is  useful ;  it 
may  quite  suffice  for  many  years  in  cases  of  remote  properties  with 
little  or  no  market; it  is  quite  sufficient  for  protective  forests, "timber- 
line"  country,  etc.  On  properties  or  parts  of  properties  with  good 
forest,  with  market  for  timber,  and  consequent  development,  the 
work  of  utilization  with  its  improvements,  of  protection  and  silvi- 
culture, soon  calls  for  more  accurate  and  more  detailed  information. 
And  especially  do  these  lines  of  work  demand  that  any  information 
apply  to  a  definite  location,  to  an  area  clearly  marked  on  the  ground 
so  that  it  can  be  found  without  repeating  surveys,  and  to  apply  to 


34  .     FQRST  REGULATION 

an  area  small  enough  so  that  any  work  can  be  inspected,  any  results 
be  verified,  and  any  task  repeated.  But  this  calls  for  a  Detail 
examination  based  on  a  definite  subdivision  of  the  land. 

2.     Detail  Survey,  or  Examination  of  Property. 

Since  the  information  in  this  case  is  desired  by  definite  areas 
the  task  divides  itself  naturally  into : 

Division  of  the  land  into  suitable  tracts. 

Orderly  covering  of  these  tracts  in  making  the  estimates,  de- 
scriptions and  maps. 

a.     Land  Division. 

In  level  country  and  where  the  land  is  subdivided  by  United 
States  Survey,  the  smallest  actual  division  is  a  Section  of  640  acres, 
and  the  lines  and  corners  clearly  marked  on  the  ground,  the  descrip- 
tion and  estimate  may  be  started  at  once  without  further  subdivision. 
But  even  in  this  case,  (which  is  rather  the  exception)  it  is  desirable 
that  the  information  be  gathered  by  smaller  areas,  usually  by  forties 
or  by  8o-acre  tracts.  This  latter  especially  commends  itself. 

Where  the  survey  is  old,  badly  done,  monuments  and  marks 
largely  destroyed,  it  is  a  waste  of  time,  in  most  cases,  to  have  the 
crew  which  describes  the  property,  hunt  up  and  re-establish  the 
land  survey,  and  it  makes  for  efficiency  and  accuracy  to  make  a 
separate  task  of  this  work.  In  this  case,  especially,  it  adds  but  little 
to  the  total  expense  per  acre  to  have  the  Section  subdivided  into 
eight  lots,  by  running  the  middle  line  E.  &  W.,  and  marking  on  all 
K.  &  W.  lines  the  T/8,  as  well  as  the  l/\  posts.  In  level  and  rolling 
country  not  covered  by  United  States  Survey,  the  United  States 
method  should  have  preference.  In  hill  and  mountain  countries, 
or  parts  of  such  where  the  rectilinear  survey  is  unsatisfactory,  or 
where  no  survey  exists,  the  subdivision  should  adapt  itself  to  topo- 
graphy. Here  the  ridges,  primary  and  secondary,  together  with  the 
streams,  normally  form  the  permanent  bases.  The  lots  are  no 
longer  of  regular  form  and  size. 

The  danger  here  is  two-fold : 

To  make  the  lots  or  tracts  too  large,  and 

To  make  the  lines  on  all  ridges  too  crooked  ;  both  should  be  and 
can  be  avoided.  ' 


DIVISION 


35 


PLATE  I.  Study  in  Division  of  a  forest  in  the  Sierras.  Scale  about 
i"-— I  Mile.  Contour  intervals  ico  ft.  Fifteen  blocks;  of  these  only  5  com- 
plete on  this  map.  Average  size  of  blocks  about  1600  acres;  average  size  of 
lots  i/o  acres.  By  Alfred  Voigt. 


FOREST  REGULATION 


EXISTING   DIVISION. 


FOREST  UNTE  RWIETSENTHAL  IN  SAXONY 

Sc.lt  of  Vtortong  Mop  -I  25000 
Contour  Interval  -   10  nwters 


PLATE  2.  Part  of  Revier  in  the  Saxon  State  forest  with  a  rectilinear 
Subdivision.  This  has  proven  unsatisfactory  and  is  to  be  replaced  by  the 
Division  shown  in  Plate  3.  From  Martin,  "Forsteinrichtung." 


FOREST  DIVISION 


37 


DIVISION  AS  PLANNED 

FOREST  UNTERWIESENTHAL    IN   SAXONY 
DIVISION  PLANNED  To  UTILIZE  TOPOGRAPHY  AND  A  NEW  ROAD  SYSTE 


n        ,v 

^  *&*  r 

'   \A\l\\V 


Sc^le  o.  Ufcrk.n,,  Mop.  ,   ^5000 


PLATE  3.  The  same  tract  as  shown  in  Plate  2.  The  Division  is  adapted 
to  the  topography  and  is  largely  made  up  of  well  planned  roads.  From 
Martin,  "Forsteinrichtung." 


38  FOREST  REGULATION 

It  i's  feasible  even  in  high  mountain  districts  to  stay  below  200 
acres  in  the  average  size  of  the  lot. 

For  convenience  the  lots  of  one  stream  valley,  or  part  of  one 
watershed  may  be  combined  into  a  Block,  and  the  lots  of  each  block 
have  their  own  series  of  numbers,  and  the  Block  is  thus  made  to 
correspond  to  the  Section  in  ordinary  Survey.  See  Plate  I.  The 
lines  of  division  normally  follow  the  ridges  or  use  the  streams  and 
where  the  distance  from  stream  to  top  of  ridge  is  too  great  lines 
parallel  to  the  valley  are  established. 

Since  roads  and  trails,  normally  use  ridges  and  valley,  or  con- 
nect these  two  by  oblique  lines  to  suit  grade  and  topography,  these 
roads  and  trails  are  used,  later  on,  in  perfecting  this  land  division. 
But  even  where  such  a  road  system  is  well  developed,  as  in  some  of 
the  recent  European  work,  the  roads  rarely  make  over  40%  of  all 
division  lines  in  hill  and  mountain  country,  and  it  is  probably  a 
mistake  to  allow  this  use  in  land  division  to  influence  unduly  the 
planning  of  a  road  system.  See  plates  II  and  III. 

Of  late,  efforts  have  been  made  to  base  a  detail  description  and 
estimate  of  timber  on  a  partial  and  more  or  les's  temporary  subdi- 
vision. (See  Diagram  fig.  I.)  A  set  of  base  lines  or  "controls'*, 
tied  into  a  regular  United  States  land  survey,  are  established  by  use 
of  solar  transit  and  stadia,  or  chain  measurements.  From  the  prin- 
cipal one  of  such  a  series,  a  number  of  secondary  base  lines  are  run 
out  on  the  ridges  between  streams.  On  all  control  lines  stations 
are  established  at  regular  intervals,  and  number  of  station,  and 
altitude  marked  on  monuments,  and  recorded  on  map  or  in  book. 
In  this  way  the  area  is  practically  subdivided  into  tracts  of  several 
hundred,  to  several  thousand  acres  in  size.  The  description  and 
estimate-work  then  starts  at  the  stations  set  on  the  control  or  base 
lines,  and  tries  to  secure  the  information,  usually  by  forties. 

If  the  control  lines  and  their  stations  are  made  permanent  and 
maintained  in  usable  condition,  this  work  may  be  regarded  as  a 
partial,  permanent  land  survey  and  will  well  justify  the  expense. 
If  the  entire  system  of  lines  is  temporary  and  allowed  to  disappear, 
the  work  serves  only  the  purpose  of  a  single  survey  and  is  certainly 
wasteful.  In  either  case  the  description  works  on  areas  and  reports 
on  areas  not  actually  marked  on  the  ground,  and  thus  has  the  short- 


FOREST  DIVISION  39 

comings  of  the  preliminary  survey,  as  stated  above.  Since  the 
mapping  and  description  work  is  done  in  detail,  this  method  is  a 
combination  of  extensive  and  intensive  work,  with  doubtful  justi- 
fication. * 


FIGURE  i.  Primary  and  Secondary  "Control"  or  base-lines.  Line  I,  2,  3, 
4  is  here  the  principal  line,  a,  b,  c  are  secondary  lines.  Dotted  lines  m,  n, 
and  o  are  lines  of  travel  of  the  crew  estimating  and  describing  the  timber^ 
At  i  is  a  Section  Corner,  here  used  to  "tie  in." 

b.     Use  and  Value  of  Subdivision  in  Forestry. 

The  value  of  a  good  permanent  subdivision  on  the  ground  not 
only  in  Survey  or  examination  of  the  property,  but  also  in  Utiliza- 
tion, Protection,  Silviculture  and  even  in  Improvements,  but  most 
of  all  in  proper  Administration  and  Bookkeeping,  is  very  great.  It 
was  fully  appreciated  by  Cotta  a  hundred  years  ago,  and  Martin 

*  These  base-  or  control-lines  may  be  established  by  a  crew  of  four  men ; 
transitman,  recorder,  rodman,  and  axman  (changes  in  this  to  suit  timber, 
etc.).  This  crew  in  fair  country  can  do  two  miles  per  day  at  an  expense  of 
about  $10.00  per  mile.  Stations  usually  every  ten  chains,  with  number  and 
altitude.  This  crew  maps  along  line;  measurement  by  stadia. 


40  FOREST  REGULATION 

today  emphasizes  its  value  when  he  says :  "The  division  of  a  forest 
into  suitable  lots  ('Wirtschafts  figuren')  must  be  considered  as  one 
of  the  most  important  tasks  of  the  field  work."  (Page  IV,  For- 
steinrichtung.) 

The  necessity  of  such  a  subdivision  and  of  having  all  informa- 
tion by  definite,  small  tracts  is  fully  appreciated  today  by  the 
lumberman  who  demands  information  by  "forties'',  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  his  interest  in  the  particular  area  or  forest  ceases  with  the 
cutting  of  the  merchantable  timber. 

The  forty  as  a  unit  of  land  division,  of  course,  came  into  the 
timber  business  through  the  practice  of  the  United  States  Land 
Office  which  has  long  used  the  forty  as  a  unit  of  land  area  and 
land  disposal. 

Intensive  forestry  has  found  it  advantageous  to  subdivide  to 
areas  even  below  40  acres,  and  few  European  foresters  would 
recommend  lots  larger  than  160  acres  even  on  poor  sites,  and  in 
rough  country. 

The  form  of  the  lot  (or  compartment)  should  be  as  simple  as 
possible ;  in  level  country  the  rectilinear  form,  twice  as  long  as 
wide,  with  long  axis  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the  prevailing 
wind,  is  quite  generally  employed.  In  mountains  the  form  becomes 
irregular,  but  too  great  irregularity  lessens  the  value  of  the  division 
and  usually  adds  to  cost  of  division  and  still  more,  its  maintenance. 

The  Division,  the  Lot  (compartment)  is  a  land  division,  it  is 
permanent ;  it  does  not  change  with  operations  of  Silviculture,  etc. ; 
it  is  independent  of  the  stand  of  timber  on  the  land,  or  its  condition 
of  type,  age,  etc.  Usually  it  is  recommended  to  include  in  one  Lot 
only  one  type  of  forest,  only  one  kind  of  land,  etc.,  but  this  is  not 
always  practical.  Thus  in  the  Great  Lakes  Pinery  it  is  a  common 
thing  to  find  on  one  So-acre  tract  conditions  as  per  diagram,  figure  2. 

In  this  case,  three  distinct  kinds  of  land,  leading  to  three  dis- 
tinct kinds  of  woods  occur  on  the  8o-acre  lot.  To  separate  these 
three  types  along  the  crooked  lines  of  the  border  of  the  swamp  would 
not  help  things,  but  rather  complicate.  Here  the  lot  as  land  division 
includes  three  types,  three  sites,  and  the  forester  in  his  description 
and  in  future  treatment  separates  these  three  as  Sub-lots. 

Sub-lot  is  a  stand-division  within  the  Lot.  In  the  above  case 
the  three  Sub-Lots  are  permanent,  but  this  is  not  always  the  case. 


LOT   AND  SUB-LOT  41 

Thus  in  an  8o-acre  lot  of  pine,  all  50  years  old,  a  storm  or  fire  may 
destroy  the  middle  portion  and  necessitate  its  removal.  This  area 
is  at  once  replanted,  and  the  8o-acre  lot  now  has  a  5O-year  old  stand 
in  the  North,  and  another  5o-year  old  stand  in  the  South  end,  with 
a  young  plantation  between  these.  In  this  case  the  forester  would 


FIGURE  2.    Eighty  Acre  lot  with  types  of  land  and  woods,  Pine  Hardwood, 
and  Swamps,  leading  to  permanent  Sub-lots  or  Stand-divisions. 

make  an  effort  to  get  rid  of  this  condition  of  three  Sub-Lots,  by 
regulating  the  cut,  and  the  Sub-Lots  would  disappear  at  the  latest 
during  second  Rotation. 

The  Lot  (or  Compartment)  does  three  things: 
It  limits  every  stand  of  timber,  etc.,  on  the  property  to  a  piece 
of  land  small  enough  for  proper  location,  small  enough  to  enable 
its  being  found  without  delay  and  extra  expense. 


42  FOREST  REGULATION 

It  helps  to  make  everything  accessible ;  even  a  blazed  line  helps 
in  going  to  a  particular  place. 

It  creates,  or  helps  to  create  small,  independent  woods,  an 
arrangement  necessary  for  good  Silviculture  in  all  forests  of  even 
age  stands,  and  useful  even  in  the  Selection  Forest. 

Subdivision  of  the  forest  is  useful  to  all  the  important  lines  of 
work  connected  with  forestry.  A  few  points  deserve  special 
mention : 

1.  Land  survey  and  Boundary.     Here  a  good  subdivision  on 
the  ground   helps   to   maintain,   verify   and    relocate   parts   of   the 
boundary ;  it  helps  especially  with  regard  to  interior  holdings ;  and 
it  helps  constantly  in  the  use  of  the  maps  prepared  in  the  land 
survey. 

2.  In  Topographic  Survey,  it  helps  to  make,  check  or  verify 
and   correct  the   survey ;   it   locates   all   topographic   features,   and 
makes  the  topographic  survey  more  useful. 

3.  The  Timber  estimate  is  more  valuable  if  made  by  definite 
forty  or  lot.     A  lumberman  who  would  gladly  pay  $2.oo-$5.oo  per 
forty  for  an  estimate  by  forty,  would  not  care  to  buy  an  estimate 
which  would  only  give  large  averages,  or  refer  to  areas  not  marked 
and  therefore  of  uncertain  location. 

Subdivision  helps  to  plan  the  work  of  estimating  and  describing 
the  property ;  it  makes  for  a  better  estimate,  since  any  one  tract  can 
be  finished  and  can  be  treated  in  estimating  according  to  its  needs. 
It  also  enables  proper  control  or  supervision  by  checking,  and  it 
enables  repetition  without  cost  of  re-location. 

In  timber  disposal  the  need  for  definite  location  is  evident ;  a 
scale  record  must  tell  where  the  stuff  was  cut ;  an  application,  a 
report,  a  contract  must  state  where  the  timber  is  located. 

4.  Plantation,  Thinning,  Improvement  work  generally  require 
definite  location ;  the  work  is  better  planned,  easier  directed,  better 
reported  and  booked ;  and  only  a  definite  location  enables  satisfactory 
inspection  and  supervision. 

5.  Protection  is  helped  by  subdivision ;  it  makes  the  woods 
more  accessible,  enables  the  ranger  to  know  his  forest,  stimulates 
interest,  locates  any  damage  and  gives  meaning  to  the  report. 

In  many  localities  a  well  blazed  division  line  helps  to  prevent 
trespass  ;  and  in  all  cases  it  facilitates  prosecution. 


FOR1CST  DIVISION  43 

6.  The  preparation  of  Working  Plans,  their  continuance  and 
improvement ;  a  proper  inventory  and  set  of  records  of  a  forest 
property  all  require  a  division  of  the  property  into  parts  or  lots. 
And  to  be  of  value,  these  divisions  must  be  small  enough  so  that  any 
stand  of  timber,  plantation,  improvement,  etc.,  worthy  of  record  is 
located  and  can  be  found  without  the  expense  of  a  special  survey. 

c.    Descriptions,  Estimates  and  Maps.* 

This  work  involves  an  orderly  going  over  the  property,  map- 
ping and  describing  land  and  forest  and  estimating  the  merchantable 
stuff  on  every  lot. 

i.    Covering  the  Land. 

The  lumberman  frequently  counts  all  merchantable  trees  on  a 
forty  by  going  several  times  through  the  forty.  For  his  purpose  this 
is  a  complete  covering  of  the  ground.  Usually  this  is  not  done,  the 
forest  is  sampled  by  going  once  or  twice  through  each  forty,  exam- 
ining in  detail  a  strip  4-8  rods  wide,  and  assuming  that  this  strip 
fairly  represents  the  forest  on  this  particular  forty. 

In  open  timber,  old  stands  of  Southern  Pine,  Western  Yellow 
Pine,  etc.,  even  this  going  twice  through  the  forty  permits  seeing 
practically  every  acre  of  the  stand,  but  does  not  usually  count  every 
merchantable  or  large  tree,  and  gives  no  chance  of  study  of  smaller 
stuff  except  along  the  line  of  travel. 

In  such  open  stands  the  estimate  can  readily  cover  four  rods  on 
each  side  of  the  line,  or  an  eight-rod  strip,  which,  by  going  twice 
through  the  forty  means  a  cover  of  20%  of  the  area.  Where  a 
caliper  crew  is  used,  the  strip  is  normally  four  rods  total  width,  or 
two  rods  on  the  side,  and  thus  forms  10%  of  the  area.  A  5%  cover- 
ing, i.  e.,  going  once  through  the  forty,  may  be  considered  the 
minimum  in  useful  detail  survey. f 

In  going  twice  through  the  forty  in  young  timber,  and  also  in 
brushy,  denser  stands,  the  forester  does  not  see  much  beyond  the 
four-rod  strip  and  practically  90%  of  the  stand  remains  unseen. 

*  Most  of  this  subject  belongs  to  Surveying,  Mensuration  and  Description, 
and  only  a  few  special  points  are  mentioned  here. 

t  See:  Margolin;  Errors  in  Estimating  Timber;  Forestry  Quarterly,  1914, 
p.  167;  giving  interesting  comparison  between  5%,  10%  and  100%  cover. 


44  FOREST 

Where  the  trees  on  the  strip  are  calipered  the  estimate  of  mer- 
chantable timber  is  restricted  to  the  strip.  The  same  is  quite 
generally  true  in  ocular  estimate,  for  the  sampling  requires  orderly 
procedure.  But  the  description  does  not  tie  itself  to  the  strip  but 
covers  all  the  territory  clearly  seen  from  the  line,  a  much  larger 
per  cent  of  area. 

In  all  wild  woods  survey  the  matter  is  complicated  by  special 
conditions.  Thus  clumps  of  old  trees,  containing  large  amounts  of 
good  timber  may  occur  off  the  strip  in  the  midst  of  a  stand  of 
sapling  or  pole  stuff.  If  these  clumps  are  not  examined  and  esti- 
mated, the  entire  forty  may  be  reported  as  being  without  any 
merchantable  timber  whereas  in  fact  it  may  contain  a  great  deal. 
Similarly  cases  of  bare  ground,  burns,  swamps,  windfall,  etc.,  require 
a  departure  from  the  regular  program  and  a  special  survey  to  ascer- 
tain the  extent  of  such  a  burn,  etc.,  is  necessary  in  good  work.  Just 
where  the  limit  should  be  to  which  this  may  be  carried  in  any  given 
case,  depends  on  the  use  which  is  to  be  made  of  the  information, 
and  the  value  of  land  and  timber,  or  the  property  to  be  examined. 
Thus  far  the  error  has  generally  been  made  on  the  side  of  economy, 
and  certainly  a  detail  survey  reporting  a  forty  as  having  no  mer- 
chantable stuff  when  in  truth  it  has  half  a  million  feet,  is  sacrificing 
too  much  to  system  and  instructions. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  apparent  that  the  work  should  not  be 
too  mechanical,  should  adapt  itself  to  the  conditions,  and  in  every 
case  it  should  cover  the  ground  sufficiently  to  avoid  gross  mistakes. 
Where  stumpage  exceeds  $6.00  per  M.  ft. ;  where  the  timber  runs 
500  ft.  and  better  per  tree,  and  10  M.,  or  over,  per  acre,  and 
especially  where  the  estimate  is  to  serve  as  basis  of  purchase  of  the 
property,  it  pays  to  count  all  trees  and  estimate  or  measure  their 
diameter. 

Crew  and  Results.  The  old-time  "cruiser"  usually  went  alone, 
kept  course,  and  distance  and  did  the  estimating.  Later  on  a  corn- 
passman  was  added  as  helper,  to  keep  course  and  distance.  The 
caliper  crew  usually  consists  of  four  men ;  compassman,  tallyman 
and  two  calipermen.  Here  the  compassman  keeps  course  and  maps  ; 
the  tallyman  keeps  tally  and  describes  timber,  the  calipermen  caliper 
the  timber  above  certain  diameter  on  the  four-rod  strip.  Of  late 
there  is  a  return  to  the  two  men  crew,  with  pacing  and  estimating 


CREW   AND   RKSUI/TS  45 

in  place  of  chaining  and  calipering.  As  in  the  covering  of  the 
ground,  it  is  doubtful  if  any  one  set  form  of  crew  should  be  used  in 
all  kinds  of  timber.  The  four  men  caliper  crew,  without  doubt,  is 
the  most  competent,  accurate  and  reliable,  especially  where  inex- 
perienced help  must  b'e  employed. 

These  crews  commonly  do  not  finish  any  particular  forty,  but 
go  one,  two,  or  even  more  miles  in  one  direction,  i.  e.,  through 
several  sections  and  then  offset  and  return.  With  ordinary  compass 
and  on  rough  ground  this  is  a  questionable  practice ;  the  crew  is 
almost  sure  to  get  off  the  intended  line,  and  it  is  not  uncommon 
for  a  less  experienced  crew  to  miss  the  forty  entirely. 

On  easy  ground  and  in  uniform  timber  a  crew  covers  about 
two  miles  of  strip,  and  thus  measures  sixteen  acres  of  strip,  so  that, 
on  a  10%  cover,  it  finishes  one  section  every  four  days,  at  an 
expense  of  about  eight  cents  per  acre.  On  rough  ground  and  in 
brushy  timber,  the  cost  increases  50-100%. 

2.    The  Information  and  its  Record. 

The  examination  of  a  forty  or  lot  involves  usually  two  rather 
distinct  parts : 

The  estimate  or  measure  and  tally  of  the  merchantable  timber, 
and 

The  description  of  site  (soil,  etc.)  and  forest  growth  or 
growing  stock,  this  latter  usually  including  notes  with  regard  to  the 
condition,  quality,  age,  thrift,  etc.,  of  the  merchantable  material  as 
well  as  the  rest  of  the  tree  growth. 

Of  these  two,  the  description  is  of  more  importance  in  regular 
forestry,  takes  more  preparation,  knowledge  and  time.  The  estimate 
or  tally  is  primarily  a  record  of  dimensions  taken  by  species.  In 
timber  under  12"  the  record  may  well  be  arranged  by  diameter 
classes  of  one  inch;  in  larger  timber  the  record  is  sufficiently  accu- 
rate if  taken  by  2" ;  and  in  timber  over  20"  d.  b.  h.  3"  diameter 
classes  are  permissible. 

In  the  earlier  efforts  it  was  thought  best  to  reduce  the  amount 
of  information  to  be  gathered,  to  as  few  simple  points  as  possible, 
and  thus  gain  in  speed  or  economy.  Accordingly  the  printed  forms 
had  but  few  columns ;  each  column  covered  a  variety  of  points  with- 
out clearly  asking  one  definite  question,  and  a  good  deal  was  left 
to  the  column  of  "remarks".  The  man  in  the  field  was  in  doubt. 


46  FOREST  REGULATION 

the  matter  seemed  largely  optional,  much  information  was  gathered 
for  one  forty  and  little  for  the  next  one,  and  much  information  was 
fragmentary.  When  these  field  sheets  came  to  the  office,  only  that 
part  of  the  notes  could  be  compiled  which  was  gathered  uniformly 
and  consistently,  such  as  the  tally  material,  and  the  rest  was  not 
copied  at  all,  or  else  "doctored"  and  inferred,  and  statements  of  the 
most  extraordinary  kind  were  often  the  result.1 

In  deciding  this  matter,  it  is  well  to  keep  in  mind  the  follow- 
ing points : 

a.  The  information  must  serve  all  lines  of  work.  It  should 
tell  the  owner  what  the  land  is,  upon  which  the  entire  forest  enter- 
prise rests  and  depends ;  the  proportion  of  good,  medium  and  poor 
land,  exactly  as  in  farming. 

For  Silviculture  one  must  know  site  and  species,  and  behavior 
of  the  species ;  difficulties  and  dangers  to  be  met  and  avoided. 

Utilization  requires  knowledge  of  material  on-  the  ground, 
topography,  obstacles  and  advantages  (streams,  etc.)  affecting  par- 
ticularly transportation.  For  Protection  the  above,  and  also  matters 
of  debris,  windfalls,  fire  and  insect  injured  stuff  and  everything  that 
affects  the  safety  of  this  property.  And  it  is  not  enough  to  know 
that  a  large  windfall  of  inflammable  material  exists,  but  it  is  essential 
to  know  exactly  where  this  menace  lies,  and  what  stands  of  green 
timber  are  endangered  by  it. 

Regulation  and  Administration  require  all  the  foregoing,  and 

much  more,  and  need  to  have  all  this  information  by  definite  location. 

-   b.    The  gathering  of  this  information  costs  time  and  money 

and  cannot  be  repeated,  except  at  long  intervals,  (ten  years,  even  in 

intensive  work). 

Probably  over  75%  of  the  money  is  spent  in  getting  the  man 
to  and  over  the  particular  forty  and  not  25%  is  spent  in  actually 
describing  the  forty  and  measuring  and  tallying  the  timber.  To  save 
on  this  part  of  the  work  then  is  generally  false  economy. 

c.  The  man  on  the  ground  is  the  only  man  who  counts,  meas- 
ures, and  describes  with  conditions  before  and  around  him ;  what  he 
puts  down,  then  and  there,  is  fact,  or,  at  least,  it  is  fair  estimate ; 

1  In  one  case  the  soil  was  evidently  neither  described  nor  examined  regu- 
larly, and  the  final  report  stated  that  an  area  of  about  60,000  acres  was  "sand 
over  hardpan,"  a  condition  probably  not  applying  to  i%  of  the  area. 


PRINCIPLES  I?;  SURVEY  47 

any  later  changes  and  inferences  are  guesswork  and  usually  work 
away  from  and  not  toward  the  truth. 

If  properly  prepared  this  man  can  see  and  estimate  numbers, 
sizes  and  other  conditions  and  he  can  put  down  figures,  etc.,  in  fifty 
columns  in  little  more  time  than  it  takes  to  fill  twenty-five.  In  fact 
fifty  columns,  each  asking  one  definite  question,  are  more  quickly 
filled  than  fifteen  columns  in  which  more  or  less  of  a  mixture  of 
information  is  asked,  or  in  which  matters  of  judgment  are  demanded 
which  require  study  on  the  ground. 

d.  The  printed  form  of  description  should  ask  the  information 
in  definite  questions,  one  point  at  a  time  and  in  one  column ;  it  should 
make  the  work  as  simple  as  possible,  discount  memory,  avoid  all 
calculations  and  study  and  merely  ask  the  field  man  to  put  down 
what  he  actually  sees.     Inference  and  suggestions  for  the  future 
should  be  kept   separate   and   not  mixed   up   with    recorded   facts. 
Whatever  is  not  definitely  asked  for  in  the  sheet,  is  certainly  never 
supplied  regularly  even  by  the  best  of  field  men. 

e.  The  man  on  the  spot,  if  properly  prepared,  should  be  able 
to  make  a  few  important  suggestions  as  to  the  future,  and  future 
treatment  of  the  stand,  and  these  should  never  be  omitted.    The  man 
in  the  office  who  plans  from  this  report  may  never  see  this  particular 
stand. 

f .  Wild  woods  are  complex ;  they  vary  from  acre  to  acre  and 
a  description  such  as  is  made  by  the  German  forester,  where  the 
stand  is  pure,  uniform,  even  aged,  cared  for,  and  where  soil  and 
topography  and  origin  and  growth  of  this  stand  may  have  been 
described  several  times  before,  does  not  suffice. . 

g.  Forest  estimates  and  descriptions  are  made  under  conditions 
where  it  is  difficult  to  control  the  work.    The  work,  therefore,  needs 
well  prepared,  honest  men.     And  even  then  it  should  be  inspected 
and  verified  all  along ;  the  field  sheets  and  maps  should  be  examined 
regularly.     Men  should  be  given  ample  time  to  do  the  work  well ; 
driving  leads  to  mere  thoughtless  travel  of  the  woods. 

3.    The  Description  Sheet. 

In  the  past  forms  with  ten  or  even  less  columns  were  common ; 
today  about  forty  columns  are  used  in  the  complete  sheet  (merchant- 
able timber  and  all)  and  the  tendency  is  toward  more  columns. 


48 


FOREST  REGULATION 


SAMPLE  FIELD  SHEET. 
(Turned,  for  Convenience  of  Printing.) 


Information. 

Col 

Locality. 

i 

i 

No.  of   Station. 

4* 

2 

No.  of  lot  and  sub-lot. 

Twp  :  

60 

3 

Acres.    Area. 

5 

4 

i/io.  Quality  of  land  in  i/io;  below 

Range  :   

4  is  non-agricultural. 

Sect-   .. 

0 

5 

i/io.  Grazing  Value  on  base  of  ten. 

Hw.  &   Hem. 

6 

Forest  Type,  permanent. 

Lot- 

? 

7 

No.     Class  of  Stand. 

o 

/ 

H.  M.  B.  others 

8 

Kinds  of  timber. 

30,  25,  20,  25 

9 

%.        Per  cent  of  each. 

*5       X4 

10 

10 

M.  ft.  Stand  per  acre. 

600 

ii 

M.  ft.  Total  for  lot. 

x6      x3 

8 

12 

No.       Logs  per  M.   ft. 

A/Tf>r 

3 

13 

No.       Logs  per  tree. 

iVier- 
cnant— 

X7          X2 

18 

14 

%.        Defect. 

7 

15 

i/io.    Shape  and  limby, 

able 
Timber. 

x8      xi 

scale  10. 

6 

—  2 
0 

5 

16 

17 
18 

19 

i/io.    Density. 
%.       Volume  Growth  in  %. 
%.       Quality  Growth  in  %. 
$.           Cost  of  logging. 

Sketch  of  Map 
with    Stations. 
General  Descrip- 
tion of  lot  ; 

II,  III 

20 

Age  class. 

Hemlock  and 

6,9 

21 

Diameter  class. 

Hardwood    lands, 

2 

22 

i/io.  Area  occup'd  by  Class. 

Poles 

with  little  of 

M,  B 

23 

Kinds    (species). 

over 

White    Pine; 

25 
7 

24 

25 

No.     Number  per  acre, 
i/io.  Cond.  of  poles,  on  10. 

4" 
d.  b.  h. 

swamp  in  one  cor- 
ner ;    Land    sandy, 

3 

26 

%.       Growth  in  Vol.  in  %. 

inferior;    fairly 

I 

27 

%.      Growth  in  Qual.  in  %. 

level. 

M,  B 

28 

'Species. 

Sap- 

Pine  cut  ;   aboul 

i 

29 

T/'IO.  Area  occupied. 

lings 

l/2  burned  over 

30 

30 

No.     Number  per  acre. 

under 

years  ago. 

7 

31 

i/ic.  Cond.,  scale  of  10. 

4" 

5 

32 

%.      Growth  in  Vol.  in  %. 

over 

Name  of 

— 

33 

%.       Growth  in  Qual.  in  %. 

5   ft. 

i 

74 

i/io.  Area  occupied. 

Describer  •   

M,  B 

Clumps 

Of 

35 

36 

Species. 
Distribution. 

Repro- 
duction 

Date- 

6 

37 

i/io.  Cond.,  scale  of  10. 

A 

38 

i/io.  Growth,   scale   of   10. 

No.  of  Sheet:  

DESCRIPTION   SHEET 


49 


—  . 

39 

Acres.  Area  occupied. 

—  . 

40 

Distribution. 

Dead 

— 

41 

Cords.  Cords  per  acre. 

stuff. 

— 

42 

i/io.      Cond.,  10  =  sound. 

s  w 

43 

Exposure  to  N,S,E,'W. 

5 

4-! 

%.       Slope  in  per  cent. 

7 

45 

i/io.  Surface,    even  =  ic. 

0 

4$ 

i/io.  Rock,     boulders,     etc., 

cover  of  surface. 

Sand 

47 

Soil,  Kind. 

5 

48 

i/io.  Soil  qual.,  io=best. 

Site. 

10 

49 

i/io.  Dr.,  io=dry  or  perf. 

7 

50 

i/ic.  Mulch  cov.,  best—  ic. 

i 

51 

T/IC.  Brush  (not  trees) 

cover  of  area. 

2-13 

5^ 

Ft.       Height  of  brush. 

II  Hw. 

53 

No.     Site  as  per  H.  of  trees 

I  Wh.  P. 

Culled     for 
Pine 

54 

History  of  Stand. 

None 
None 

55 
5$ 

Reproduction. 
Growth. 

What  may  be  expected  dur- 

Defect 

57 

Injury  and  decay. 

ing  next  20  years. 

growing 

Cut  old  stuff 

58 

Utilization. 

Cut 

59 

Improvement 

defective 

cutting. 

What    should    be    done,    if 



60 

Thinning. 

possible,    during    next    20 

Fill  in 

years. 

Pine 

61 

Planting. 

None 

62 

Special  Protection 

63 

Remarks. 

In  arrangement  of  the  field  sheet  and  system  of  taking  notes  it 
is  well  to  keep  in  mind : 

a.  The   compilation   of   the   information,    which    requires   that 
everything  is  arranged  so  that  classification  is  convenient. 

b.  That   numerical   statements   are   much   more   definite,   more 
convenient  to  make  and  compile,  fully  as  expressive  as  words.     If 
three  classes  of  soil  are  made,  it  is  just  as  clear  and  expressive  to 
set  figures    T,   2   and   3,   as   to   state:   good,   medium   and   inferior 
land,  etc. 


50  FOREST  REGULATION 

c.  Few  stands  furnish  information  for  all  the  columns,  but 
this  is  impossible  to  foresee  and  it  is  inconvenient  to  carry  a  variety 
of  sheets,  suited  to  different  kinds  of  stands,  so  that  a  single  form 
deserves  preference. 

The  preceeding  sample  is  intended  merely  as  a  suggestion ;  it 
is  convenient  to  use ;  requires  not  over  fifteen  minutes  for  a  full 
description  at  one  station ;  and  thus  not  over  two  hours  per  mile  of 
line  where  descriptions  are  made  every  220  yards.  In  uniform 
forests  conditions,  half  that  time  suffices.  The  items  are  generally 
understood,  and  used,  except,  perhaps,  the  Stand  Classes.  These, 
as  here  intended,  are  merely  a  convenient  division  of  stands  on 
lines  involving  not  merely  age,  and  size,  but  also  other  conditions. 
Thus  in  pure  stands  of  Norway  Pine  in  the  Lake  States  it  may  not 
be  feasible  to  describe  accurately  by  age  classes ;  and  while  the 
caliper  tally  gives  information  as  to  sizes  found'  on  every  acre  of 
strip  actually  measured,  and  in  part  indicates  age  classes,  there  is 
some  advantage  in  a  further  classification. 

The  following  classes  are  commonly  found  on  a  large  tract  of 
pure  Norway  Pine  in  the  Great  Lakes  Region: 

All-Old  over  ripe  stands,  rapidly  deteriorating, 
All-Old,  fire  injured  stands,  in  uncertain  condition, 
All-Old  (even  aged)  good  stands  which  may  be  safe  for  twenty- 
five  years  and  more, 

Old  broken  stands  with  natural  reproduction, 
Middle  age,  and  "Second  Growth"  or  "Pole"  stands  and 
Stands  of  "Reproduction"  or  thickets  of  trees  1-20  ft.  tall. 
In  this  case  it  is  easy  to  recognize  the  stand  class  and  it  is  help- 
ful to  record  it,  as  it  corroberates  and  amplifies  other  information. 
In  doubtful  cases  it  is  of  little  consequence  whether  the  stand  is 
placed  in  one  or  in  another  class.     Where  this  classification  is  em- 
ployed,  it   is  well   not  to-  make  too   many   classes,   since   then  the 
difficulty    of    distinguishing    them    offsets    all    advantages    of    the 
•classification. 

4.    Computation  of  Volume. 

This  applies  chieflly  to  merchantable  timber.  In  the  practice  so 
far  developed  in  the  United  States  the  volume  of  trees  calipered  or 
estimated  for  their  diameter,  has  been  computed  from  Volume 
tables.  This  is  perfectly  natural  and  proper,  and  will  undoubtedly 


COMPUTATION    OF  VOLUME  51 

continue  to  be  done.  Care  should  he  taken  to  test  the  tables  used; 
and  tables  based  upon  one  height  for  each  diameter  should  not  be 
applied  to  stands  of  taller  or  shorter  timber.  In  emergency  cases 
the  form  factor  can  be  used  to  adapt  the  table. 

European  practice  frequently  uses  the  Draudt,  or  the  Urich 
methods,  but  in  most  state  forests  the  ocular  estimate  is  permissible, 
and  the  use  of  Volume  tables,  like  the  old  Bavarian  tables  is  again 
coming  into  favor.  Where  the  Urich  method  is  used,  recent  instruc- 
tions, like  the  Bavarian  of  1912,  prescribe  the  felling  of  not  less 
than  ic/c  of  the  total  stand  for  sample  material  to  compute  from. 
( )n  a  forty-acre  lot  with  6000  trees,  this  method  calls  for  the  felling 
of  sixty  trees,  to  be  worked  up  into  the  usual  stuff  and  measured  and 
scaled.  In  Bavaria  this  is  feasible  in  most  localities,  and  readily 
indicates  not  only  the  total  volume  but  also  the  grades  and  with 
this  money  value  of  the  stand.  In  our  country  in  localities  remote 
from  mill  and  road,  the  sixty  trees  and  all  the  labor  of  cutting  would 
be  wasted. 

5.  The  Mapping. 

This,  in  good  field  work,  is  now  done  on  a  scale  of  8",  12"  and 
even  16"  to  the  mile.  The  work  usually  notes:  land  division, 
topography,  streams,  roads,  etc.,  forest  types,  burns,  grazing  and 
waste  lands.  Clean  work  avoids  crowding  of  material  on  sheet, 
and  especially  the  use  of  blunt  crayon,  etc.,  the  ideal  being  a  map 
which  can  readily  be  copied  by  anyone. 

Topography  in  mountains  is  commonly  taken  with  aneroid : 
some  form  of  "percenter"  has  advantages,  especially  in  easy  rolling 
and  relatively  level  country. 

6.  Accuracy  of  the  Work. 

In  securing  merely  the  amount  of  merchantable  timber  and 
especially  in  old,  defective  timber,  the  experienced  cruiser  has  ad- 
vantage over  a  less  experienced  man,  even  with  better  methods. 
Generally,  however,  this  is  not  true,  and  the  results  of  the  forester's 
work,  using  methods  which  can  be  planned,  criticised,  adapted  to 
conditions,  checked  at  every  step,  and  fully  explained  in  court, 
deserve  the  preference.  Nevertheless  one  hears  occasionally  :  "But 
vou  are  not  accurate,  a  bridge  engineer  can  estimate  the  amount  of 


52  FOREST  REGULATION 

material,  and  the  costs  to  one  or  few  per  cents  and  be  certain  of  his 
figures,  then  why  cannot  yon  do  the  same  ?'' 

But  if  the  engineer's  material  were  scattered  promiscuously  over 
miles  of  country,  and  no  two  pieces  alike,  and  none  of  any  accurate 
geometrical  figure,  none  in  position  to  weigh  or  actually  measure, 
he  would  probably  prefer  not  to  estimate  at  all. 

Generally,  ten  per  cent  must  be  regarded  as  an  attainable,  and 
also  a  satisfactory  accuracy  in  forestry  estimates  of  volume.  In 
most  forestry  work  the  estimate  of  the  merchantable  stuff  is  not 
used  as  final  measure ;  the  logs  are  scaled  when  cut,  and  it  is  usually 
far  more  important  to  have  a  good  description,  to  record  the  condi- 
tion of  the  forest  on  a  particular  forty  than  to  try  for  great  accu- 
racy in  the  estimate  of  Volume. 


II.     SPECIAL  STUDIES  IN  THE  FOREST. 

In  the  examination  of  large  wildwoods  properties  it  is  usually 
desirable,  almost  necessary,  to  add  the  following : 

a.  Preparation  of  Volume  Tables  of  the  important  kinds  of 
timber ; 

b.  Preparation  of  Yield  Tables; 

c.  Study  of  the  Behavior  of  the  important  species,  and  the  in- 
juries of  the  recent  past  as  well  as  the  principal  points  of  danger; 

d.  Special  study  of  conditions  not  really  of  the  forest,  such  as 
grazing  lands,  camping  grounds  for  tourists ;  peat,  gravel  rock  de- 
posits, etc.,  which  may,  in  time,  become  sources  of  income. 

a.    Volume  Tables. 

These  tables  give  the  volume  of  the  individual  tree  and  are 
usually  of  two  kinds,  one  based  on  diameter  breast  high,  the  other 
on  the  age  of  the  trees. 

i.  The  tables  based  on  diameter  state  that  a  tree  12"  d.  b.  h. 
14",  1 6",  etc.,  contains  a  certain  volume,  either  in  cubic  feet  or  feet 
board  measure.  They  are  useful,  primarily,  in  the  computation  of 
the  results  of  estimates  or  caliper  measurements  as  made  during  the 
survey,  but  they  give  no  information  as  to  the  rate  of  growth  of  the 
tree.  To  be  of  use  for  the  timber  on  different  sites  (soil  or  altitude) 


VOLUME;  TABLES  53 

they  require  values  for  different  height  classes.  The  data  for  these 
tables  are  usually  gathered  in  connection  with  regular  timber  cut- 
ting, so  that  the  results  may  not  only  be  stated  in  board  feet  or  cubic 
feet,  but  may  give  the  number  of  railway  ties,  poles,  piling,  cords 
of  pulp  or  cooperage  stock,  etc.,  and  in  this  way  the  value  of  the 
tree  on  basis  of  prevailing  prices. 

This  work  may  well  be  done  by  2  men  crews,  and  usually  takes 
the  following  measurements :  total  height ;  height  of  stump ;  number 
of  logs,  and  total  length  thus  actually  used ;  clear  length,  and  length 
which  could  be  used ;  diameter  breast  high,  outside  bark ;  upper 
diameter  of  each  log  inside  bark.  The  scale  of  the  logs  bases  itself 
on  length  and  diameter  and  leaves  out  of  consideration  crook  and 
defect,  as  accidental. 

2.  Volume  tables  based  on  Age,  state  the  volume  (and 
usually  height  and  diameter)  of  the  tree,  at  the  age  of  ten,  twenty, 
thirty,  etc.,  years,  and  thus  indicate  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  tree. 
The  data  are  gathered  by  partial,  or  by  complete  stem  analysis. 

a.  Partial  analysis.     If  in  the  process  above  described,   the 
rings  on  the  stump  are  counted  and  thus  the  age  of  the  tree  is 
ascertained,  the  data  can  be  arranged  according  to  age  instead  of 
diameter  and  a  table  can  be  prepared  which  gives  the  volume  of  the 
tree  at  different  ages.     That  the  same  data  can  also  be  used  to 
prepare  the  table  based  on  diameter,  is  evident. 

b.  In  Complete  stem  analysis  the  rings  are  counted  on  the 
stump,  at  the  end  of  each  log,  and  usually  at  one  or  more  cuts  in 
the  top.    In  addition  to  being  counted  they  are  measured,  from  bark 
in,  at  every  tenth  ring,  so  that  a  table  and  a  diagram  can  be  prepared 
which  shows  the  size  of  the  tree  at  time  of  felling,  ten  years,  twenty 
years,  etc.,  before  felling.     From  this  diagram  and  table  a  curve  is 
made  for  each  tree  and  the  rate  for  the  several  trees  thus  graphically 
averaged.     This  is  one  of  the  most  useful,  instructive  and  reliable 
lines  of  measurements  in  forest  work.     As  far  as  any  one  tree  is 
concerned,  the  results  are  as  accurate  as  the  form  of  the  tree  permits. 

Only  good  trees  should  be  used.  A  great  deal  of  information 
is  obtained  from  one  tree;  thus  a  tree  150  years  old  tells  of  its 
height,  diameter  and  volume  at  ten,  twenty,  thirty,  etc.,  years  and 
thus  gives  accurate  information,  which  in  the  partial  analysis  would 
require  fifteen  trees.  In  addition  it  presents  the  actual  growth  of 


54  FORICST  REGULATION 

a  good  tree  throughout  life,  while  the  partial  analysis  does  not  give 
this  for  any  tree.  The  information  applies  usually  to  dominant  tim- 
ber, the  kind  composing  the  final  crop.  While,  generally,  a  large 
number  of  trees  are  called  for,  it  is  surprising  how  uniform  and 
how  reliable  is  the  information  even  from  100  trees. 

In  all  growth  study  work,  only  the  valuable  species  are  con- 
sidered. The  study  of  growth  on  different  sites  multiplies  the  task 
and  adds  very  materially  to  the  cost.  While  apparently  very  simple 
and  mechanical,  this  kind  of  work  requires  a  well  prepared, 
thoroughly  interested  and  faithful  worker.* 

b.    Yield  Tables. 

Present  the  volume  of  the  Stand  of  trees  per  acre,  at  the  age 
of  ten,  twenty,  thirty,  etc.,  years.  They  are,  therefore,  not  merely 
tables  of  yield,  but,  also  tables  of  growth,  indicating  the  rate  of 
growth  of  the  stand. 

For  older  stands  (merchantable)  it  is  desirable  also  to  know 
the  amount  of  material  in  form  of  ties,  poles,  etc.,  i.  e.,  in  the  usual 
forms  into  which  the  particular  timber  is  converted,  and  thus  to 
learn  not  only  the  volume,  but  also  the  value  of  the  stand  per  acre. 

Yield  tables  are  prepared  for  the  different  sites,  and  in  their 
final  form  usually  include  number  of  trees  per  acre  and  also  height, 
diameter  and  volume  of  the  average  tree.** 

These  tables  assume  a  pure  stand  and  even  aged  stand;  all 
efforts  to  prepare  satisfactory  tables  for  mixed  stands  and  for  many 
age  stands  have  failed,  so  far,  to  produce  satisfactory  results. 

To  secure  the  data  for  yield  tables  it  is  necessary  to  find  pure 
stands  of  different  ages,  get  their  volume  and  by  means  of  curves 
even  up  and  complete  the  information  so  that  it  can  be  tabulated. 
These  stands  should  not  only  be  pure  stands  and  even  aged,  but  also 
fully  stocked  and  in  reasonably  good  condition.  For  these  reasons 
only  good  stands  are  of  any  use,  and  the  selection  of  these  stands 

*  Ordinary  Volume  table  work  is  done  by  two  men  crew  ;  doing  50  trees 
per  day ;  office  work  adds  50%  to  cost ;  1000  trees  for  about  $2CO-$3OO.  Stem 
Analyses  by  two  men  crew ;  do  about  10  trees  per  day ;  office  work  adds 
100%  ;  total  cost  about  $i.oo-$2.co  per  tree.  Varies  greatly  with  timber, 
locality,  etc. 

**  For  models  of  completeness  in  Yield  tables  see  the  recent  studies  of 
growth  of  Pine,  Oak,  and  Spruce  by  Schwappach. 


YIELD    TA1JLICS  55 

must  depend  on  the  judgment  of  the  man  in  charge  of  the  work. 
In  ordinary  wildwoods  the  selection  of  stands  for  yield  table  work 
is  not  always  easy,  in  some  cases  impracticable. 

It  is  much  easier  in  conifers  than  hard  woods,  and  generally 
easier  for  young  stands  than  old.  Even  in  pure  stands,  the  variation 
in  age,  the  irregular  condition  of  the  trees,  and  the  question  of 
stocking,  complicate  matters.  The  question  whether  a  stand  is  fully 
stocked  is  not  always  easy  to  answer.  The  same  stand  of  Pine  100 
years  old,  fully  slocked,  and  in  excellent  condition,  might  have  20% 
less  trees,  and  yet  10%  more  volume  if  it  had  been  heavily  thinned 
at  the  right  time.  Here  then,  neither  the  number,  nor  the  volume 
fully  decide  the  case.  This  whole  matter  must  remain  debatable 
until  new  stands  have  grown  up  under  the  care  of  man,  and  accept- 
able standards  established.  Generally  a  fully  stocked  stand  must 
be  accepted  to  be  one  on  which  as  many  good  trees  exist  as  have 
fair  growing  space  under  the  given  conditions  of  species  and  site.* 
Since  the  Yield  tables  as  above  indicated  deal  with  perfect  stands, 
they  have  also  been  called  Normal  Yield  Tables.  In  using  them  it 
is  necessary  to  make  allowances,  for  it  is  utterly  impossible  to 
develop  all  the  stands  of  a  forest  through  an  80  or  100  year  Rota- 
tion without  disturbance  or  accidents.  In  the  Bavarian  Instructions 
a  reduction  of  20%  for  Spruce  and  1020%  for  Beech  is  suggested. 

Of  late,  Yield  tables  have  been  prepared  giving  the  volumes 
over  large  areas  as  actually  found.  While  these  tables  are  of  value 
as  indicating  actual  conditions  of  the  forest,  their  use  in  predicting 
the  growth  of  timber  on  the  particular  site  is  rather  uncertain,  since 
the  conditions  of  the  wild  woods  are  commonly  too  irregular  and 
accidental  to  serve  as  criterion  of  what  can  be  done  in  forestry.  On 
the  other  hand  the  best  10%  (or  less)  of  all  the  acres  of 
mature  stuff  calipered  may  very  well  be  used  in  setting  a  provisional 
Normal  Yield  for  mature  timber  and  thus  also  serve  to  determine 


*  This  matter  of  Normality  or  what  constitutes  a  fully  stocked  Stand 
("Vollbestands  factor")  and  'how  a  stand  is  to  be  gauged,  is  still  a  debated 
point.  For  purposes  of  volume-calculations  the  prevailing  German  plan  puts : 

-Degree  of  Stocking  =^  Area  of  Cross  Section  of  trees  of  Stand  divided 
by  Normal  Area  of  Cross  Section. 

Sec  also:  Martin,  "Forsteinrichtung"  and  Schilling's  Comment  in  "Zeit- 
schrift  fiir  Forst  und  Jagdwessen,"  1911,  p.  582,  and  particularly  Fricke, 
"Standorts  und  Bestandesbeschreibung"  in  same  paper,  1911,  p.  227. 


56  FOREST  REGULATION 

the  normal  average  yearly  growth  of  ripe  timber,  two  figures 
useful  in  the  development  of  the  Working  Plan. 

Similarly  in  mixed  stands  and  many  age  stands,  the  actual 
Growing  Stock  of  a  fair  number  of  the  best  stocked  acres  seems 
still  the  best  basis  for  a  provisional  Normal  Growing  Stock  and 
Normal  Average  Growth  in  these  stands. 

In  all  cases  the  yield  table  results  may  well  be  checked  by  the 
use  of  Volume  tables  and  by  a  comparison  with  established  tables 
for  the  same  kind  of  timber.  A  goqd  set  of  Volume  tables,  especially 
where  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  ''growing  space''  or  area  of 
land  occupied  by  the  trees  of  different  sizes,  deserves  attention. 

In  setting  the  average  age  of  the  best  mature  stands  it  is  well 
to  keep  in  mind  that  the  ordinary  stand  of  timber  (pure  and  even 
aged)  does  not  increase,  materially,  in  volume  after  a  certain  age, 
and  that  this  age  for  most  species  is  far  within  the  limit  of  the 
natural  Rotation  or  life  of  the  tree. 

In  the  field  work  of  gathering  data  for  Yield  tables,  a  task 
well  done  by  the  valuation  survey  crew,  it  is  well  to  select  the  stands 
carefully  and  to  be  satisfied  even  with  areas  of  one-half  acre,  rather 
than  complicate  conditions.  In  hard  pine,  etc.,  stunted,  dense  stands 
must  be  avoided ;  preferably  also  very  old  stuff,  since  future  rota- 
tions will  rarely  consider  stands  over  150  years  old,  and  the  majority 
not  over  100  years. 

Considering  the  many  difficulties  in  the  preparation  of  Yield 
tables,  the  question  may  well  be  asked:  Why  prepare  these  tables 
at  all  ?  The  answer  is :  Just  as  a  farmer  wants  to  know,  and  needs 
to  know  how  much  wheat  or  corn  he  can  raise  on  a  given  farm,  so 
the  Forester  should  know,  and  the  owner  wants  to  know  how  much 
pine  timber  will  this  property  produce  per  acre  and  year. 

This  is  the  function  of  the  Yield  table ;  and  while  the  figures 
from  wildwoods  may  never  be  very  accurate,  they  will  at  least  be 
near  enough  right  to  prevent  foolish  investment  and  utterly  mislead- 
ing statements,  such  as  have  already  been  circulated  about  Eucalyp- 
tus. Jack  Pine,  Norway  Poplar,  etc..  in  our  country,  and  they  will 
also  prevent  costly  planting  on  miserable  sites  and  equally  so  the 
unwise  penury  of  leaving  good  lands  idle  for  want  of  proper  plant- 
ing. In  the  regulation  of  large  forest  properties,  even  approximate 
figures,  if  rationally  based,  will  give  assurance  of  continued  supply, 
by  preventing  thoughtless  overcutting  of  the  forest. 


TABLES  57 

c.    Forecast  Tables. 

These  have  also  been  termed  Yield  Tables.  They  state  (fore- 
cast) that  if,  for  instance,  the  stand  is  cut  over  to  a  diameter  limit 
of  12",  there  will  be  a  growth  sufficient  to  make  3000  ft.  b.  m.  in 
twenty-five  years.  They  are  based  on  the  stand  of  timber  left  after 
cutting  and  its  estimated  growth,  the  assumption  being  that  a  certain 
number  of  trees  die  (estimated)  and  that  the  forest  continues  to 
reproduce  as  in  the  past,  and  that  the  composition  in  mixed  forests 
continue  as  at  present. 

Since  these  tables  are  based  on  the  present,  more  or  less  acci- 
dental conditions  of  the  wild  woods  they  apply  only  for  the  im- 
mediate locality  and  for  the  immediate  future.* 

d.    Other  Studies  in  the  Timber. 

These  involve  chiefly  the  behavior  of  the  important  species  of 
trees  on  the  property. 

T.    Behavior  of  trees,  notably: 

a.  Tolerance. 

b.  Site  requirements,  chiefly  as  to  soil,  and  in  mountains  as  to 
exposure  and  altitude. 

c.  Behavior  of  principal  species  in  mixture. 

d.  Reproduction,  frequency  of  seed  years,  abundance  of  seed- 
ing, etc.     In  hardwoods,  also,  the  sprouting. 

These  facts  as  gathered  at  the  first  Valuation  Survey  are,  of 
necessity,  merely  beginnings.  The  behavior  of  trees  in  any  locality 
is  not  learned  in  one  year,  and  experience  must  accumulate. 

For  this  reason  such  a  line  of  inquiry  is  treated  briefly  and 

*  Tables  of  this  kind,  though  evidently  worked  out  with  a  great  deal  of 
care,  have  not  given  us  very  satisfactory  or  convincing  data.  The  following 
figures  are  taken  from  four  different  publications.  The  growth  per  acre  and 
year  of  a  stand  cut  to  12''  d.  b.  h.  is  as  follows : 

Spruce  (East)  cut  takes  2490  ft.  per  acre,  growth  is  103  ft. 

Loblolly   (S.  C.)   cut  takes  6190  ft.  per  acre,  growth  is     73  ft. 

Pine  (Ark.)  cut  takes  6060  ft.  per  acre,  growth  is  150  ft. 

while  according  to  recent  studies  the  growth  of  Loblolly  in  Maryland  on 
Site  II,  or  average  lands,  is  over  400  ft.  per  acre  and  year.  Here  a  fast 
growing  species  in  a  warm  climate  is  expected  to  grow  only  75%  as  much 
timber  as  another  stand  of  slow  growing  stuff  on  a  cold  site,  and  this  in 
spite  of  nearly  double  the  growing  stock  on  the  land. 


58  FOREST  REGULATION 

details  deferred.  Effective  study  of  this  kind  requires  a  man  thor- 
oughly grounded  in  silvics,  and  if  he  is  not  to  be  had,  it  should  be 
left  at  notes  as  gathered  in  Valuation  Survey. 

2.  Injuries  occur  in  all  woods.  They  represent  the  dangers 
to  the  Merchantable  Stand,  present  and  future,  and  danger  of  im- 
mediate loss.  They  determine  what  must  be  done  to  protect  the 
forests  and  often  decide  what  species  must  be  favored  or  used  and 
also  the  methods  of  silviculture  best  adapted.  Windfall  prevents 
the  use  of  various  forms  of  seeding  from  isolated  trees,  and  groups 
of  such  trees-;  it  forbids  shelterwood  and  seed  tree  in  Spruce.  Heavy 
snow  forbids  the  use  of  Scotch  Pine  in  parts  of  the  Black  Forest : 
the  Locust  beetle  has  prevented  desirable  woodlot  work  on  the 
farms,  etc. 

a.  Generally    the    forest   tells    its    own    story,    and    notes    are 
gathered  during  the  regular  valuation  survey.     Besides  occasional 
stops  to  determine  the  approximate  age  of  a  burn  or  other  injury 
there  is  no  call  for  special  study  unless  some  great  trouble,  like  bark 
beetle  pest,  etc.,  is  under  way  and  threatens  large  values  in  timber. 

Manner  of  stating  these  facts  in  report  should  avoid  all  lengthy 
discussion  and  relate  the  injury  directly  with  loss  in  value,  its  effect 
on  Protection,  Utilization,  Silviculture,  Business.  If  special  study 
is  made  of  such  trouble  as  an  insect  calamity,  it  is  best  made  the 
subject  of  special  report. 

b.  Special  consideration  is  required  by  the  conditions  affect- 
ing fire  protection.     In  the  United  States  this  must  continue   for 
many  years,  in  fact  until  the  woods  are  cleaned  up  and  fire  protection 
becomes  an  established  custom.     In  this  connection  the  areas   of 
even  aged  dense  young  stands  in  conifers  and  the  large  masses  of 
windfall  and  fire  killed   stuff   require  attention  and   are  therefore 
recorded  in  regular  columns  of  the  description  sheet. 

To  try  to  locate  at  once  the  best  points  for  lookouts,  tool  boxes, 
phone  lines,  etc.,  is  really  beyond  the  scope  of  the  survey  and  is 
much  better  done  as  a  special  enterprise  in  making  the  Plan  of 
Protection. 

e.    Report  on  Conditions  other  than  Timber. 

Which  affect  value  of  property  and  its  management.  Such 
matters  as :  Lands  needed  for  purposes  of  the  forest  business,  mill 
sites,  pastures,  etc. 


CONDITIONS   NOT  flMIJER  59 

Grazing  areas. 

Water  powers,  mileage  of  driveable  stream,  etc. 
Camp  grounds  for  pleasure  seekers. 

Rock,  gravel,  etc.,  or  materials  which  may  be  disposed  of  or 
used  in  the  work  on  the  forest. 

1.  In  ordinary  valuation  survey  these  matters  are  merely  noted 
as  they  appear  to  the  forester.     There  is  no  time  for  exploration  or 
study.     If  sufficiently  evident  and  important  they  are  made  subject 
of  special  examination  or  else  they  are  left  for  others  to  explore, 
as  is  usually  the  case  in  development  of  these  special   resources, 
where  the  future  applicant  does  the  prospecting  and  calls  attention 
to  the  matter  by  request  for  purchase  or  lease. 

2.  Where  grazing  lands  are  of  importance  as  on  many  of  the 
National   Forests,  their  examination  is  made  a  special  task.     The 
land  is  covered  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  used  in  valuation  survey 
of  forest  lands ;  and  the  facts  are  noted  on  a  regularly  prepared 
form  in  which  the  following  items  deserve  consideration : 

a.  Area  and  topography  and  altitude. 

b.  Soil  and  drainage. 

c.  Cover,  grass,  or  brush  or  both,  kinds  and  density. 

d.  Quality  of  range  by  certain  standards,  i.  e.,  I,  2d  or  3d  class 
grass  lands,  etc. 

e.  Injury,  if  any  and  cause  of  this. 

f.  Possibility  of  improving  range. 

g.  Suggestions  regarding  treatment  in  the  immediate  future, 
to  which  should  be  added :    Time  when  free  from  snow,  i.  e.,  open 
season ;  time  when  ready  to  drive  in ;  capacity  to  carry  stock  for  this 
open  season  ;  access  to  area,  and  possibility  of  giving  each  man  a 
separate  range. 


III.    INFORMATION  NOT  OF  THE  PROPERTY  ITSELF. 

While  this  is  now  commonly  omitted  in  Germany,  it  is  of 
greatest  importance  to  us,  where  everything  is  new  and  changing, 
and  where  the  owner  may  he  in  New  York  and  the  property  in 
Michigan  or  Idaho. 


60  FOREST  REGULATION 

a.    Logging  or  Exploitation,  Methods  and  Costs, 
Effects  on  Forest. 

This  usually  involves : 

1.  What  is  done  in  this  Vicinity   with  the   Kinds   of  timber 
found  upon  the  property.     How  much  is  cut,  where,  and  by  whom. 

2.  How  is  the  work  done,  i.  e..  Methods  of  Logging,  trans- 
portation, milling,  including  matters  of  labor,  usual  results  and  cost. 
Particularly  the  methods  of  logging  and  transportation  of  timber  to 
mill  require  special  study,  and  the  principal  steps  of  felling,  cutting 
into  logs,  skidding  (or  yarding)   loading,  hauling,  driving  or  rail- 
roading, the  construction  of  roads,   railway,  camps,   etc.,  all   need 
mention. 

3.  How  is  the  Material  marketed,  where  and  at  what  prices, 
including  the  consideration  of  value  of  material  at  different  points, 
as  logs  in  woods,  at  mill,  as  stumpage. 

4.  In  what  condition  do  these  methods  of  logging  leave  the 
woods  from  standpoint  of  silviculture  and  protection. 

5.  Names  of  men  who  take  contracts  of  logging,  buy  stumpage, 
or  logs,  and  mills  ready  to  convert  timber  on  contract,  etc. 

6.  Suggestions  for  improvement  especially  as  to 

a.  Silviculture  and  Protection. 

b.  Economy  in  logging. 

c.  Opportunity  of  manufacturing  the  stuff  by  owner. 

This  set  of  information  is  very  important,  it  is  largely  a  matter 
of  visits  and  canvass  or  inquiry,  requires  tact  and  preparation,  and 
often  can  only  be  done  through  special,  extended  study  by  some 
person  of  considerable  experience.  In  districts  with  special  forms 
of  exploitation  such  as  Turpentine  industry,  tan  bark,  acid,  pulp 
and  extract  wood  ;  railway  ties,  poles,  piling,  cordwood  jobs,  cooper- 
age, wagon  stock,  etc.,  these  industries  require  attention. 

b.    The  Market. 

Needs  special  study,  and  includes  both  local  markets  and  dis- 
tant (usually  large  city)  market  as  well  as  rates  of  shipment  to 
these  markets. 

The  large  ''World  Markets",  i.  e.,  the  big  cities,  at  a  distance 
are  known,  the  prices  paid  or  demanded  are  seen  in  Technical 


OUTSIDF,  CONDITIONS  6  I 

Journals,  freight  rates  are  obtained  from  Railways  or  shippers.  It 
is  desirable  to  know  the  firms  now  buying  in  the  district  where  the 
property  lies,  and  specializing  in  the  kinds  of  timber  on  hand. 

Local  Market  is  of  special  value.  Here  come  questions :  What 
is  bought,  how  much,  who  buys.  Then  also:  what  is  the  history 
of  this  market  for  last  few  years,  and  what  are  the  chances  of 
improvement  by  property  owner  by : 

Special  inducement  to  present  buyers. 

Bringing  in  other  or  additional  industries. 

This  information,  also,  is  a  matter  of  canvass,  requires  tact  and 
time.  But  the  salient  points  can  always  be  secured  and  should  never 
be  wanting,  even  if  much  correction  is  needed  later  on. 

c.    Population  and  principal  Business  of  the  District. 

Chief  considerations  here  are  the  effect  of  the  people  and  their 
business  on :  Taxation,  Protection,  Labor,  Market.  In  many  dis- 
tricts as  in  the  Lake  States,  taxation  has  been  boosted  systematically 
by  local  people  until  cutting  has  been  forced ;  grazing  in  the  West 
opposes  forest  extension  and  good  silviculture  and  in  some  cases 
ordinary  fire  protection ;  grazing  in  the  Southern  Pinery  established 
the  custom  of  "light  burning"  and  prevented  reproduction ;  the  berry 
picker  in  Lake  States  Pinery  and  the  tourist  in  many  districts  must 
be  considered  in  fire  protection,  etc.  Lack  of  labor  in  places  prevents 
effective  fire  fighting  in  spite  of  all  patrol  and  lookouts.  The 
established  custom  of  wood  working  in  parts  of  the  East,  Lake 
Region  and  Canada,  makes  a  cord  of  poor  material  (Aspen,  tama- 
rack, etc.)  far  more  valuable  and  saleable  than  is  the  same  material 
forty  miles  from  Detroit.  This  information  is  gathered  while 
looking  after  markets,  logging,  etc.,  and  should  be  constantly  in  the 
mind  of  the  Forester  as  he  examines  property. 

d.    Contracts  for  Timber,  Leases  of  Lands,  Easements,  Etc. 

Which  may  exist,  are  known  to  the  owner  or  his  agent.  But 
the  effect  of  these  contracts  on  the  forest,  and  especially  on  future 
management,  are  not  usually  known  or  understood.  Such  contracts 
are  very  common.  In  many  cases  it  is  a  contract  for  all  standing 
merchantable  timber;  or  for  certain  kinds  of  timber  (Hemlock  and 
Cedar  in  Lake  Region  are  preferred  subjects),  in  some  cases  there 


62  FOREST  REGULATION 

is  no  time  limit  at  all,  in  others  it  is  a  long"  time  contract  without 
limitation  as  to  area,  so  that  the  man  can  return  to  the  same  lands 
and  cut  over  the  same  tracts  repeatedly  according  to  changes  in 
market.  The  effect  of  such  conditions  is  evident;  and  all  rational, 
systematic  treatment  of  the  woods  is  impossible  unless  the  contract 
is  removed  by  purchase,  or  is  modified  by  agreement  and  compensa- 
tion. The  statement  should  point  out  clearly  what  the  contract  is, 
its  history  to  date,  injury  to  the  forest  at  present,  interference  with 
the  management  in  future,  and  suggestion  as  to  its  removal. 

e.    General  Topography  or  Lay  of  Land  and  Drainage 
of  the  District. 

As  it  affects  transportation,  agricultural  and  other  development 
and  thereby  future  market,  labor,  and  protection  and  the  value  of 
the  property  itself.  This  is  generally  not  subject  of  personal  in- 
spection but  is  matter  of  maps  and  inquiry.  Important  here: 
General  altitude  as  it  affects  climate,  agriculture,  etc..  best  stated 
in  per  cent  of  total  as :  over  60%  above  6,000  alt.,  etc. ;  topography, 
i.  e.,  what  per  cent  is  steep  lands,  mountain  slopes,  not  fit  for  farm- 
ing ;  streams  draining  the  dictrict,  their  value  for  driving"  timber, 
for  water  power,  in  some  cases,  for  ordinary  navigation  ;  the  stream 
valleys  as  natural  lines  of  travel  and  railway  construction.  Swamp 
areas,  areas  of  waste  land  and  possibility  or  likelihood  of  reclama- 
tion. This  means  a  brief  statement  of  the  great  permanent  condi- 
tions -of  the  district  which  must  always  affect  its  development  and 
are  of  importance  to  the  particular  property  determining  its  value 
as  a  business. 

f.    The  Climate. 

Next  to  soil,  and  in  many  cases  far  more  than  soil,  is  the  most 
important  part  of  Site;  it  determines  Species, 'it  affects  reproduc- 
tion, growth,  final  size,  and  quality  of  timber.  It  also  affects 
protection  and  exploitation  or  utilization  and  income  and  value  of 
property. 

T.  Warm  climate  and  long  growing  season  produce  a  Loblolly 
Pine  24"  diameter  at  forty  years  in  Georgia ;  while  a  cold  climate 
produces  a  14"  Spruce  at  150  years  in  the  Adirondacks  on  better 
soil.  The  dry  spring  following  the  snow  melt  in  the  Lake  Region 
and  Ontario  means  a  regular  spring  fire  season ;  moist  and  even 


CONDITIONS  Ol?  DISTRICT  63 

climate  of  the  Southern  Pinery  has  prevented  any  serious  forest  fires  ; 
the  peculiar  continental  climate  with  its  occasional  dry  years  must 
always  mean  a  special  feature  in  fire  protection ;  the  deep  snow  fall 
of  the  Adirondacks  or  the  North  Rockies  discourages  pine  and  calls 
for  Spruce  or  Balsam ;  the  snow  and  ice  road  will  always  be  a 
factor  in  logging  in  the  North  Countries,  and  absence  of  snow  in 
the  South  will  call  for  railway  and  wagon  haul,  etc. 

2.  In  all  cases  the  effect  of  climate  on  silviculture  or  the  raising 
of  the  crop  far  outweighs  all  other  considerations. 

3.  Usually  the  general  climate  of  a  district  is. known  and  much 
information  can  be  secured  from  the  weather  bureau  reports.    What 
is  wanted  here  is  not  long  tabulations  of  relevant  and  irrelevant 
matter,  but  brief,  preferably  tabular  statements  to  show  exactly  what 
the  temperature,  rainfall,  frost,  storm,  etc.,  are  for  the  district  and 
point  out  in  what  way  and  to  what  degree  these  conditions  affect 
silviculture,    protection,   exploitation,    etc.      Particular   attention   to 
length  of  growing  season,  temperature  and  precipitation  during  this 
period,  frosts  in  spring  and  fall.     Then  also  long  dry  spells,  their 
regularity  and  effect  on  forest,  especially  on  fire  protection ;  storms, 
periodicity  of  these,  direction  and  severity,  regular  storm  roads  as 
in  the  Gulf  Region  and  in  mountains. 

4.  In  level  country  (Great  Lakes,  South)   the  information  on 
general  climate  of  district  quite  suffices,  but  in  mountain  country' 
this  is  not  true.     Here  every  valley  has  its  own  peculiarities ;  the 
direction  and  intensity  of  wind  changes  with  every  slope ;  the  rain- 
fall around  the  Olympic  Mountains  in  Washington,   for  instance, 
changes  from  over  160"  on  west  side  to  about  30"  on  Northeast 
side  at  Port  Townsend  all  within  the  same  National  Forest. 

5.  It  is  evident  that  the  Forester,  in  examining  a  property,  can 
not  possibly  determine  all  these  facts.     But  he  can  always  get  the 
general  climate  from  the  Weather  Bureau,  and  he  can  usually  gather 
considerable  information  from  local  people.     Particularly  on  points 
of  long  dry  spells,  time  of  early  snow,  depth  of  snow  fall,  usual 
snow  melt,  character  of  spring  season,  etc.     Here  it  is  not  a  matter 
of  accurate  figures,  but  rather  of  experience  upon  which  the  people 
rely  in  their  business  affairs. 

6.  In  addition  the  Forester  may  safely  infer  from  the  char- 
acter of  tree  growth  and  other  vegetation,   from  the  presence  of 
large  burn?,  of  parks,  and  grass  lands,  of  sage  brush  slopes,  etc., 


64  FOREST  REGULATION 

with  regard  to  local  climate  in  different  parts  of  property  itself.  In 
recording  it  is  well  to  state  the  basic  facts,  and  leave  the  inference 
to  follow.  For  instance  if  TO%  of  the  property  is  steep  north 
slopes,  in  latitudes  north  of  40°  the  inference  is  safe  that  these 
slopes  are  dark,  and  cool  or  cold  and  relatively  moist,  etc.  Similarly, 
the  Spruce  Slope  in  West  Virginia,  or  in  the  Rockies  warrants  the 
inference  that  the  climate  here  on  these  slopes  is  cool  and  moist ; 
and  south  slope  in  Rockies,  covered  with  sage-brush  requires  no 
meteorological  investigation,  the  vegetation  here  tells  the  story  more 
accurately  than  weather  observations. 

g.    Present  Organization,  and  Expenses. 

Or  Personnel  maintained  and  necessary  expenses  incurred  in 
connection  with  the  care  of  the  property  in  past  years  is  usually 
known  to  the  owner.  Nevertheless  it  is  helpful  to  state  these  facts 
and  point  out  what  portions  of  this  personnel  is  replaced  by  a  regular 
forest  organization.  It  it  also  well  to  point  out  the  insufficiency  of 
present  organization  and  consequent  losses,  or  possible  losses. 

Usually  there  is  an  attorney  in  a  nearby  town  to  look  after  tax 
and  trespass  cases;  a  variable  sum  spent  in  cruiser  services,  etc.,  to 
look  after,  and  more  or  less,  protect  the  property.  In  many  cases,  as 
in  the  Adirondacks  and  the  South,  "caretakers"  are  employed  to  look 
after  buildings,  roads,  etc.,  and  usually  these  men  are  rather  expen- 
sive, rarely  efficient,  and  never  concerned  in  the  forest  itself.  It  is  not 
uncommon  that  the  owner  spends  twice  the  salary  of  a  good  forester 
on  a  few  men  entirely  devoid  even  of  interest  in  the  growing  forest. 

IV.    LIST  OF  LANDS. 

The  owner,  or  more  often  his  local  attorney  usually  has  a  list 
of  all  the  lands  making  up  the  property.  Commonly  this  is  in  the 
form  of :  • .  • 

a)  Township  plats  with  lands  marked  in  color. 

b)  Tabular  statement  by  township,  range  and  section,  and  forty 
in  United  States  survey  lands  or  "Public  Lands  States." 

Such  a  list  and  set  of  Plats  should  accompany  any  complete 
Report  such  as  is  here  contemplated  in  connection  with  a  Working 
Plan. 

In  addition  to  the  mere  "description",  such  a  list  should  also 


LIST  OF   LANDS  65 

indicate  what  part  of  the  boundaries  has  been  inspected  and  when, 
and  the  condition  of  these  lines,  blazes,  and  monuments. 

In  many  cases  certain  areas  or  lines  are  in  dispute;  then  also 
lands  under  timber  contracts,  etc.,  should  be  shown  on  plat  and  in 
list. 

In  many  cases  time  of  purchase,  of  regular  land  survey,  title, 
etc.,  are  of  interest  even  in  the  matter  of  making  a  Working  Plan. 

In  all  cases  where  portions  of  the  lands  should  be  eliminated  and 
sold  for  agricultural  purposes,  the  lands  should  receive  special  color 
on  the  plat  and  note  in  list. 

V.    DETAIL  DESCRIPTION,  NOTES  AND  MAPS.. 

After  all  or  any  considerable  part  of  the  field  work  is  done  the 
field  notes  should  be  copied  and.  one  copy,  at  least,  stored  in  fire 
proof  vault. 

The  material.  This  is  quite  a  bulky  affair.  For  a  forest  of 
50,000  acres,  and  if  done  by  lots  of  eighty  acres  each  and  maps  of 
every  section,  there  are  over  600  sheets  of  description  and  tally,  and 
perhaps  over  100  separate  maps. 

Two  ways  now  are  open :  Ordinary  clerical  help  may  copy,  or 
else  an  expert,  preferably  the  man  in  charge  of  the  field  work  copies, 
studies  and  condenses.  In  the  former  case,  it  is  safest  to  allow  the 
clerk  no  change  of  data  whatever,  i.  e..  have  it  copied  as  it  stands 
in  the  field  notes,  except  the  tally  sheet  where  he  can  well  substitute 
number  for  tally  dots  and  lines. 

Where  the  forester  copies,  the  following  will  prove  suitable. 

a.  Copy  descriptions  by  Lots  on  same  kind  of  sheets  as  used 
in  the  field,  one  sheet  for  one  lot  only. 

b.  Condense  the  descriptions  for  each   Sub-Lot  into  one  de- 
scription per  Sub-Lot,  i.  e.,  where  a  Sub-Lot  in  field  receives  two 
or  more  descriptions  (common  if  well  done),  these  descriptions  are 
combined  and  averaged,  and  the  volume  of  timber  computed  for 
entire  Sub-Lot  so  that  one  line  and  one  description  suffices  for  each 
sub-lot.       This    requires    expert    knowledge,    preferably    personal 
knowledge  of  particular  forest  lands  and  it  also  requires  interest  and 
care,  for  in  this  task  the   first  valuable  record  of  the  property  is 
laid  down. 

c.  These  Lot  sheets  are  then  filed  in  regular  order  by  Town- 
ship and  Section,  or  other  system. 


66  FOREST  REGULATION 

C.  COMPILATION  OF  THE  INFORMATION 
IN  A  REPORT. 

1.  View  Point.    Whether  the  property  belongs  to  state,  or  to 
a  man  in  New  York  the  report  must  keep  in  mind  two  kinds  of 
readers : 

a.  The  Owner  in  New  York  or  the  Member  of  a  state  Com- 
mission usually  a   non-technical   and  very   busy   man   who  cannot 
study  a  long  report  but  is  willing  to  spend  a  few  hours  to  get  the 
principal  facts  as  they  concern  him.     For  this  man  a  one  or  two 
page  resume  is  very  helpful,  but  also  the  rest  of  the  General  Report 
should  be  in  such  form  that,  if  he  cares,  he  can  readily  find  and 
understand  the  desirable  information. 

b.  The   Forester   who   is   to   use   the  Working   Plan.      He   is- 
technical,  critical,  and  for  him  the  general  Report  should  not  only 
be  brief  and  clear,  but  also  quite  complete,  and  it  should  refer  to 
detail  descriptions  and  notes  and  maps  in  such  a  way  that  he  can 
readily  verify  all  statements. 

2.  The   Arrangement   of  the   Material  or  the  Form   of  the 
Report.     Keeping  in  mind  the  custom  of  stating  the  more  general 
facts  first,  it  is  usual  to  arrange  the  matter  as  follows : 

a.  Outside  Conditions,  or  conditions  not  really  part  of  the 
property.     Here  belong:    Location,  and  description  of  District  in- 
cluding lands  and  topography  and  climate ;  then  also  the  population 
and    its    industries ;   the   markets   and   transportation ;    also   special 
forest  industries,  logging  and  milling,   though  these  latter  might 
well  follow  the  description  of  the  property. 

b.  Description  of  the  Property,  including  Land  and  Timber, 
Improvements  and  Business.    Tables  are  more  telling  than  text,  but 
long    and    complex    tables,    requiring    extensive    study,    are    rarely 
properly  used. 

3.  The  Compilation.    The  field  maps  are  copied  and  compiled 
into  larger  maps  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  traced  for  white  and  blue 
prints.     In  compiling  the  forest  descriptions  and  estimates  or  Tally 
Results  it  is  well : 

a.    To  decide  first* on  the   form  and  contents  of  the  General 
Report. 


COMPILATION  OF  REPORT  67 

b.  To  make  several  separate  tasks  of  the  compilation.     Thus 
to  make  one  compilation  for  the  data  referring  to  the  land  or  site ; 
Another  to  the  merchantable  timber ;  one  to  the  age  classes,  to  repro- 
duction, to  future  treatment,  etc. 

c.  To  prepare  a  regular  table  for  each  of  these  tasks,  following 
the  field  sheet,  and  adding  columns  only  where  it  saves  time  or  adds 
clearness. 

In  this  work,  as  in  field  work,  it  pays  to  use  plenty  of  columns, 
and  not  trv  to  have  one  column  tell  several  facts.  In  taking  off 
information  from  field  sheets  on  these  compilation  tables  it  is  well 
to  add  the  data  for  each  section.  In  this  way  the  information  is  at 
once  "bunched'',  as  far  as  this  is  convenient  by  larger  units.  The 
same  may  well  be  done  for  each  Township.  i  • 

c.  The  Volume  and  Yield  Tables  are  treated  in  the  usual  way, 
by  condensing  into  general  tables  and  diagrams. 

d.  For  the  notes  regarding  logging  methods,  markets,  injuries, 
and  then  also  climate,  etc.,  no  special  directions  can  be  given.    They 
should  be  condensed  to  brief,  clear  and  yet  complete  statements,  and 
should  never  lose  sight  of  the  real  purpose  which  they  are  to  serve. 

4.  The  General  Report.  This  is  a  very  important  document. 
In  most  cases  it  is  the  first  reasonably  complete  and  fairly  accurate 
statement  regarding  the  property.  Much  depends  on  its  form,  size, 
style  and  arrangement.  The  best  work  in  the  field  may  fail  to  serve 
through  bad  compilation  and  unsatisfactory  presentation  in  the 
General  Report. 

The  following  sample  report  does  not  pretend  accuracy  of  detail, 
completeness  or  style,  but  is  placed  here  merely  to  suggest  how  this 
kind  of  task  mav  be  done. 


D.    A  SAMPLE  REPORT. 

Report  on  Forest  property  of  John  Doe,  located  in  

County,  Mich.,  comprising  50,000  acres. 

I.  Outside  Conditions,  or  General  Conditions  of  the  District 
in  which  the  property  lies. 

a.  Lands  and  Topography.  Level,  gently  rolling  country, 
typical  Michigan  Pinery,  10-20%  swamp  lands.  Land  covered  with 
Glacial  Drift,  largely  deep  sands  and  loamy  sands,  the  former  Pine, 
the  latter  Hardwood  and  Hemlock  lands :  over  60%  of  all  lands 


68  FOREST  RISGUI.ATION 

cut  over  (logged)  and  mostly  burned  over.  Numerous  streams,, 
with  clear  water,  and  moderate  fall,  some  good  watcrpower ;  streams 
driveable  for  soft  woods,  no  regular  navigation.  Over  10%  of  land 
area  in  fine  clear  water  lakes. 

b.    Climate,  typical  of  North  Michigan  and  Lake  Region. 

1.  Temperature:      Long    severe    winters,    with    much    zero 
weather,  short,  but  rather  warm  summers.     Too  cold,  i.  e.,  north 
of  the  natural  limit  of  Hickory,  Walnut,  Chestnut,  Sycamore,  etc. ; 
too  cold  for  corn  as  crop.    Low  temperature  and  short  season  result 
in  slow  growth,  small  amount  of  seed-;  affect  sprouting  of  some  of 
the  hardwoods.     On  the  pine  land  the  sand  heats  up  in  summer  to 
point  of  injury  to  seedlings. 

2.  Precipitation,  about  30"  per  year;  comes  largely  as  snow. 
Dry  springs  produce  a  regular  spring  fire  season.     Summer  com- 
monly quite  dry. 

Extremely  dry  seasons  at  intervals  of  6- TO  years  have  caused 
great  forest  fires  of  which  1871,  1881,  1894,  1907  and  1908  are 
famous.  In  1008  practically  no  rain  from  May  to  October.  Snow 
deep  and  can  be  depended  upon  for  sleigh  haul.  Usually  over  100 
days  of  good  sleighing.  Covers  seedlings ;  but  deep  wet  snow  breaks 
much  timber,  especially  young  pine. 

3.  Frost,  especially  late  frosts,  severe  and  injurious  to  native 
forest  trees.     In  1907  and  1913  late  May  and  June  frosts  killed  new 
foliage  on  Oak,  Aspen  and  even  killed  young  pine.     Frosts  may 
occur  in  any  month. 

4.  Prevailing  winds  West  and  Northwest  and  Southwest,  the 
latter  quite  dry,  often  hot  and  injurious.     Windfall  not  rare,  acci- 
dental, i.  e..  no  regular  storm  roads. 

*      G.     Population  and  Industries. 

1.  The  population  of  county  is  about  7,000  and  has  been  nearly 
stationary  for  ten  years ;  the  area  is  about  360,000  acres.     Popula- 
tion mostly  in  three  small  towns ;  dependent  upon  the  forest  indus- 
tries.    A  sparse  rural  population,  likewise  still  depends  largely  on 
work  in  logging  camps  and  mills. 

2.  Population  is  the  usual  American  mixture,  which  gathers 
in  forest  districts ;  no  colored  or  Indian  settlements. 

3.  Sentiment   favors   agricultural    settlement   and   clearing   of 
lands  and  is  kept  alive  by  local  papers,  merchants,  land  dealers,  etc. 


SAMPLE  REPORT  69 

4.  Labor  is   fairly  plentiful,  and  quite  efficient  especially   in 
woods  work. 

5.  Timber  trespass  and  carelessness  with  fire,  in  clearing, 
road-building,  etc.,  still  prevails  and  is  not  properly  restrained  by 
the  authorities. 

6.  Taxation  is  high  :  twenty-one  per  Mill  average  for  county. 
Increased  settlement  calls  for  roads  and  schools  and  may  increase 
tax  rate  for  near  future. 

7.  Agricultural  Development  is  slow,  only  \i%  of  county  now 
improved  land  and  only  3%  has  been  added  in  ten  years. 

8.  Mills:   Three  sawmills,  capacity  about  50  M.  ft.  per  day  are 

located  in city, ,  and.. ,  and  employ 

men.    Seventeen  small  "portables"  also  operate  in  county.    Exploita- 
tion of  Cedar  and  Hemlock  Bark  amounted  to  $ in  past 

year. 

Outlook:  Two  larger  mills  were  moved  away,  and  two  small 
villages  abandoned  in  past  five  years.  Generally  the  local  industries 
(except  farming)  are  on  the  decline.  Timber  (as  logs)  goes  out  of 
county  to city  where  a  closer  utilization  is  possible. 

9.  Tourists,  fishing  and  hunting  parties  come  into  this  county 
in  considerable  numbers.     This  affects  protection  but  may  also  be 
made  source  of  income. 

d.    Markets  and  Transportation. 

1.  Local   Market.     The   mills,   including  the   portables,   then 
also  agents  of  distant  concerns  come  here  as  buyers  and  take  prac- 
tically  everything  including  Jack   Pine,   and  Tamarack,   and   even 
dead   stubs  of   Pine  and  hardwood  tops    (cordwood   cut   in  4   ft. 

length.)     The  mills  at city  contract  for  logs  of  all  kinds 

loaded  on  cars  or  delivered  at  track,  and  also  contract  for  stumpage. 

2.  Prices  at  present  are  as  follows : 

Pine  logs  $18.00  per  M.  ft. ;  stumpage,  $12.00. 
Hemlock  logs  $10.00  per  M.  ft. ;  stumpage,  $6.00.    Etc. 

3.  Prices  have  advanced  over  100%  in  fifteen  years,  and  are 
rapidly  advancing  for  all  kinds  of  material.     This  "price  growth" 
is  estimated  at  4%  per  year  for  Pine,  Ash,  Basswood,  Elm  and 
Cedar. 

5%  for  Hemlock  and  Maple, 
S>%  for  Beech  and  Tamarack, 
and  represents  the  most  important  growth  on  the  property. 


70  FOREST 

a.  Distant  or  General  Market ;  chiefly  Chicago  and*  Detroit. 
Mill  run  prices  paid  now  for  lumber  f.  o.  b in  this  county: 

Hemlock,  $16.00, 
Maple,  $20.00.    Etc. 
Grading  is  not  severe. 

b.  Freight  rates  to  Chicago  to  Detroit  to  Buffalo,  etc. 

c.  The  X  Railway  passes  through  county  N.  and  S.,  and  has 
three  branch  lines  aggregating.  ......  .miles.     Four  branch   lines 

abandoned  in  last  ten  years. 

e.  Logging  in  this  district  is  now  all  to  Ry. ;  and  is  both  sum- 
mer and  winter  logging ;  little  machinery ;  few  steam  loaders ;  X  Ry. 
furnishes  cars. 

a.  Wages,  average  $35.00  and  board;  good  men  hard  to  get  for 
regular  camps.    Board  costs  60  cts.  per  man  and  day. 

b.  Teams  $500.    Keep  $1.20  per  day. 

c.  Camps  of  boards ;  one  concern  uses  camp  cars. 

d.  Cutting  logs   $  .80  per  M.  ft. 

Skidding  per  team i.oo    "•      "     " 

Loading  per  team 25    "      "     *' 

Road  building  per  team 50    "      "     " 

Railway   construction    i  .00    " 

Railway  operation  and  up-keep 75 

Supervision .25 

Interest,  tax,  depreciation 50    ' 

e.  Hauling  in  summer  by  "Big  Wheels"  ;  in  winter  on  sleigh, 
use  ice  road  for  haul  over  two  miles  ;  one  outfit  hauls  twelve  miles 

.and  uses  sleigh  locomotive,  works  day  and  night. 

f.  Logging   is   "clean"   here   now,   i.   e.,   all   is   cut ;   much   of 
material   does  not  pay   for  removal;   logging  destroys   the   forest, 
leaves  slash,  and  is  usually  followed  by  fire. 

g.  There  is  still  about  one  billion  feet  of  timber  in  this  county 
and  this  is  now  being  logged  at  rate  of  fifty  million  feet  per  year; 
about  30%  Hemlock,  24%  Maple,  the  rest  Beech,  Elm,  etc. 

h.  Cedar  and  Tamarack  is  exploited  entirely  in  small  way  by 
local  people ;  ties  cut  and  hewn  at  fifteen  cents  per  tie,  poles  cut  and 
peeled  at  thirty  cents — seventy-five  cents  a  piece,  etc.  Hemlock  bark 
is  peeled  and  stacked  at  $1.50  per  cord. 


SAMPI.R  REPORT 


i.  The  methods  of  logging  are  well  suited  to  conditions ;  efforts 
at  using  machinery  have  not  been  a  success.  A  closer  utilization  of 
hardwood  tops  has  begun  and  will  help  fire  protection  where  the 
forest  is  to  stay. 

II.    The  Property. 

a.  Area  and  form.    The  50,000  acres  are  located  in  four  town- 
ships, they  comprise  fifteen  different  pieces  separated  by  numerous 
outside  holdings,  of  which  over  80%  have  been  logged  and  burned 
over  in  last  twenty  years.    The  largest  solid  body  is  5,600  acres,  the 
smallest,   eighty  acres;  most  of  the   area  is  contiguous,   i.   e.,  the 
bodies  "touch  at  corners." 

b.  Topography  and  climate  are  the  same  as  for  the  county 
generally ;  it  is  a  level  and  gently  rolling  country,  with  a  few  tracts 
of  "pot  hole"  lands,  and  also  a  few  small  areas  with  rocky  "hog- 
backs." 

The  land  is  drained  bv  Wolf,  Beaver  and  Deer  Creeks,  all  fol- 
lowing into  the River:  all  drivable  for  soft  timber,  total 

length  drivable  streams  forty  mile?. 

c.  The  land  is  all  covered  with  drift,  the  soil  is  sand  and  sandy 
loam,  very  little  clay,  and  is  generally  over  fifty  feet  deep.    The  land 
is  classified  by  the  timber  it  bears  ;  the  hardwood  and  Hemlock  lands 
are  generally  considered  farm  lands  in  this,  district.     About  60% 
of  these  could  well  be  farmed,  of  the  pine  lands  not  over  10%  and 
of  the  swamps  not  over  10%  would  pay  for  drainage.    About  2000 
acres  is  open  moss  bog  and  may  be  regarded  as  waste  land  at  present. 
Classifying  the  lands  from  the  stand  point  of  growing  timber,  and 
using  lay  of  land,  size  and  appearance  of  timber,  and  yield  per  acre 
as  principal  standards  we  have : 

TABLE  OF  SITES,  i.  e.,  Good  (I),  Medium  (II),  and  Poor 
(III)  lands  for  growing  the  timber  named. 


Site  for 

Site    for 

Site  for 

Site  for 

Waste 

Types 

Total 

Norway    Pine. 

White    Pine. 

Hardwoods. 

Tamarack 

Land. 

of 

Area 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Forest. 

Acres. 

Moss 

I 

.11 

Ill 

I 

II 

III 

I 

II 

III 

I 

II 

Bog. 

Pine  lands 

17500 

4400 

I020P 

2930 





Hdw.  lands 

22500 



,  . 

• 

11250 

6/50 

4500 

22OO 

9050 

1  1  25C 





Swamn    lands 

rnnnn 

innn 

vom 

2ODO 

FOREST  REGULATION 


d.  The  Forest.  About  half  the  area  is  covered  by  a  stand  of 
Hardwood  and  Hemlock  from  which  some  large  White  Pine  was 
removed  years  ago :  within  this  two  distinct  areas  of  sandy  lands 
were  covered  with  a  fine  stand  of  Norway  and  White  Pine  now 
largely  cut  and  the  land  burned  over.  Over  the  entire  tract  are 
scattered  fifteen  more  or  less  distinct  areas  of  swamp  lands.  The 
following  table  describes  these  types. 

a.    Table  of  Forest  Types. 


Type  of 
Forest. 

Area. 
Acres. 

%  of 
Total. 

Virgin 
woods 
with    merch. 
material. 

Areas  not 
cut  but  with 
little  or  no 
merch.  stuff. 

Cut   and 
largely 
burned 
over. 

Waste 
non- 
forest. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Acres. 

Hardwood    & 
Hemlock 

22500 

45 

15000 

5000 

2500 

• 

Pina 

17500 

35 

5000 

1000 

11500 



Swamp 

1  0000 

20 

4500 

2000 

1500 

2OOO 

Total 

50000 

100 

24500 

'8000 

15500 

2000 

b.    Amount,    Quality   and   Present    Value   of    Merchantable 
Timber  on  the  Property. 


Forest 
.types. 

Area, 
on  which 
merch. 
timber 
occurs. 

Cut 
per 
acre. 
M.  ft. 

Value. 

Total 
value 
$1000 

per 
M.  ft. 

per 
acre. 

Acres. 

b.  m. 

$ 

$ 

Hardwood  & 

Hemlock 

15000 

10 

5-Qo 

59 

885 

Pine 

5000 

12 

IO.OO 

120 

600 

Swamp 

4500 

8 

3.75 

30 

165 

Total 

24500 

6/.OO 

1650 

SAMPLE 
c.    Amount,  Quality  and  Value  by  Species. 


73 


Kind  of 
timber. 

Area  on 
which 
found. 
Acres. 

Cut. 

Value  on 
stump. 

Logs. 

Quality 
Description. 

per 
acre. 
M.  ft. 

Total 
cut 
MM. 

per 
M.  ft. 

$ 

Total 
$1000 

per 
tree. 

per 
M.  ft. 

Hemlock 

15000 

3 

45 

6 

2/q 

4 

8 

Large,  limby, 
shaky,  rough, 

fine,  smooth, 

Maple 

15000 

2.5 

37-5 

4 

150 

3 

7 

much  dark 

heart. 

Elm,    Bass 

wood,  Ash 

i5<X)o 

3-5 

52.5 

8 

420 

3 

8 

First  class. 

and  Birch 

Fair,  sound, 

Beech 

I500Q 

i 

15 

3 

45 

3 

10 

much  crook- 

ed stuff. 

Much  fire 

Pine 

5000 

12 

60 

10 

600 

4 

15 

injured  15% 

defect. 

Pole,  ties 

and  post  stuff 

much  dead 

Cedar 

.    4500 

3 

16.5 

5 

82 

— 

— 

and  down. 

No  poles 

over  45  ft., 

good, 

Tamarack 

4500 

5 

22.5 

3 

67 

3 

25 

straight, 

sound. 

Total 

249 

1634* 

d.    Condition  of  Timber  in  each  Type  by  Classes  of  Stands 
found  in  each. 

i)   Hardwood  and  Hemlock  Type,  22,500  acres. 
"Stand  class"   i)   Old  timber,  ("all  old  stands")  defec- 
tive,  "going  back",   need   cutting  at 

once 2,500  acres 

2)   Old    timber    in    good    condition    no 

middle  age  (size)   stuff. 5>oo° 

*  This  discrepancy  due  to  rounding  off  on  several  items. 


74  FOREST  REGULATION 

"'Stand  class"  3)  Mixed-age  ("all  age")  stands  in  good 
condition,  some  net  growth  in  vol., 
more  in  quality  ('or  size)  of  trees.  .  .  7,500 

4)  Young  stands  with  little  or  no  mer- 
chantable stuff;  good  growth  in 'vol. 
and  quality,  generally  over  25  ft.  in 
height .   4,000 

5)  Young  hardwood  thickets,  very  little 

of  young  Hemlock,  too  dense  in  places  1,000 

6)  Cut  over  areas,  cut  in  last  five  years, 
some  burned  over,  very  little  repro- 
duction   and    this    poor,    much    Pin 
Cherry  brush   2,500 

A  f  ew  hundred  large  White  Pine  in  old  stands ;  and  on  about 
500  acres  there  is  scattering  White  Pine  reproduction  in  isolated 
clumps,  doing  well. 

2)  Pine  Type,  17.500  acres. 

"Stand  class"  i)  Old  fire-injured  stands,  Norway  Pine 
So%  White  Pine  20%,  no  hardwoods, 
defective  "going  back" ,. .  .  4,000  acres 

2)  "All  old"  stuff,  holding  its  own,  no 
middle  age  stuff,  no  reproduction. .  .    1,000 

3)  Second  growth  stuff  over  25  ft.  high, 
in  broken  stands,  does  not  fully  cover 

land 500 

4)  Young  thickets,  in  clumps  and  pat- 
ches under  25  ft.  high  ;  good  condi- 
tion         500 

5)  Cut  over  Pine  lands,  burned  over  re- 
peatedly, about  25%  with  scattering 
Oak     scrub,     no     reproduction,     no 
growth  of  value  at  present 1 1,500 

3)  Swamp  Type,  10,000  Acres  (incl.  Moss  bogs). 
"Stand  class"   i)   Old,  pure  stands  of  Tamarack  with 

very  little  Cedar  and  Spruce,  badly 
hurt  by  sawfly,  rapidly  decreasing  in 
value 3'000 


SAM  PUS  REE'ORT  75 

"Stand  class"  2)  Old  stands  of  Tamarack  and  Cedar, 
the  latter  predominant,  good  condi- 
tion, no  net  growth  in  vol.  or  quality, 
some  reproduction  1,500 

3)  Young  stands  over  25  ft.  high,  but  no 
merch.   stuff,  good  condition  as  yet. 
Largely    Tamarack    hence    in    great 
danger   i  ,000- 

4)  Young  stands  under  25  ft.,  same  as 
under  No.  3 : 1,000 

5)  Cut  over  areas,  cut  during  last  five 
years,  fair  reproduction 1,500 

6)  Moss  bog,   with   few   Black   Spruce, 

not  forest   2,000 

f.  Estimated    Growth    in    Vol.   and    Quality   of    timber   on 
property. 

1)  Areas  with  negative  growth,  timber  deteriorat- 
ing, worst  in  Tamarack,  next  in  Hardwoods,  least  in 

Pine ;  deterioration  estimated  at  5% 10,500  acres 

2)  No    deterioration,    no    growth    in    Volume    or 
Quality    8,000 

3)  Little  growth  at  present,   reproduction  hardly 

set  in.  and  much  of  this  poor  quality 15,000 

4)  Good  growth  in  volume  and  quality,  mostly  in 
young  stuff,  partly  too  dense,  Tamarack  in  danger  of 
sawfly 16,500 

Only  about  1/3  of  land  actually  has  a  net  growth  of  timber  in 
Volume  or  Quality. 

g.  Growth  of  Timber  in  Value. 

From  previous  statements,  prices  have  advanced  rapidly  for 
last  fifteen  years,  most  in  last  ten  years,  and  they  are  expected  to 
advance  at : 

4%  per  year  for  Pine,  Elm,  Basswood,  Ash  and  Cedar. 

5%   for  Hemlock  and  Maple. 

8%   for  Beech  and  Tamarack. 

This  growth  in  Price  will  generally  balance  decay  or  deterioration 
in  Hardwood,  Hemlock  and  Pine,  but  in  Tamarack  situation  entirely 
uncertain  and  acute. 


76 


FOREST  REGULATION 


TABLE  OF  VALUE  GROWTH  PER  YEAR. 


Kinds  of 
Stands. 

Area. 
Acres. 

Value 
of 
stand 
per 
acre. 

$ 

Yearly  Growth  in 

Total  yearly 
growth    in 
value 
rounded   off 

Remarks. 

Value. 

per  acre. 

% 
loss. 

% 
gain. 

loss. 

$ 

gain. 

$ 

loss. 

$ 

gain. 

$ 

Old  defective 

Hardwood    & 

Hemlock. 

2500 

50 

I 

__ 

I.OO 



2500 

. 

Good,  old 

stands  of 

Hw.  &  Hem- 

All price 

lock. 

5000 

60 

— 

5 



3.00 



15000 

growth. 

Mixed  age 

stands  in 

Vol  and 

Hw.  type. 

75oo 

60 

—  . 

6 



3-50 

. 

26000 

price. 

Young   stuff  in 

Hw.  type. 

5000 

40 

— 

8 



3.00 

. 

15000 

Old  defective 

Pine. 

4000 

120 

I 

_, 

1.20 



4800 

. 

Old  sound 

Pine. 

1000 

123 



4 



5-oo 

. 

5000 

Old  stands  of 

swamp  tim- 

ber badly  in- 

jured. 

3000 

30 

6+ 

— 

2.00 



6000 

Old  stands  of 

good  swamp 

timber. 

1500 

40 

— 

5 

2.  CO 



3000 

Young  stuff  of 

Pine  and 

Swamp  tim- 

ber. 

4000 

30 

— 

8 

2.50 

— 

10000 

Total. 

13300 

74000 

This  estimate  indicates  a  probable  net  growth  of  about  $60,000 
per  year  in  value  of  this  timber,  the  principal  growth  consisting, 
not  of  growth  in  the  forest  but  of  price  growth,  in  market  value 
of  timber. 

h.    Volume  Tables  for  Principal  Species. 

A  few  diagrams,  and  brief  tables  showing  the  size,  (D.  H.  and 
vol.  and  value)  of  tree  at  age  of  40.  60,  80  and  100  years.  The 
complete  tables  are  filed  with  Detail  Description  Material. 


SAMPLE  RF.l'nitT  77 

1.  Yield    Tables.     Treatment    similar   to   h,   the   volume    and 
value  per  acre  at  40.  60,  80  and  ido  years. 

j.    Injuries  and  Dangers, 
i..  Fires  have  burned  over: 

Pine  lands 1 1,500  acres 

Hardwood  lands   2,500 

Swamp    1,500 

Total    1 5,000 

On  the  swamp  lands  good  reproduction  is  coming ;  on  the  hard- 
woods there  is  some  reproduction  but  of  poor  quality ;  on  the  pine 
lands,  it  is  mere  Oak  scrub  and  useless  Aspen,  which  does  not 
grow  to  value  here. 

Fires  run  most  on  pine  land,  little  in  swamps,  except  in  specially 
dry  seasons,  when  swamp  fires  may  be  the  very  worst. 

Fire  season:  After  snow  melt,  on  pine  lands,  soil  dries  and 
warms  up  rapidly  and  fires  start  in  this  district  every  year. 

Fire  causes:  Clearing  land;  Railways  (along branch) 

also  campers,  fishermen,  tourists  and  berry-pickers. 

Help  in  fire  work  is  quite  easy  to  get  and  efficient. 

Cooperation:  Association  now  organizing;  arrangement  with 
local  people  practical  and  promising  of  good  results. 

Fire  patrol  needed :  Ordinary  years  not  over  two  months  in 
year.  Special  years,  May-October ;  perhaps  once  in  ten  years. 

"Look  outs"  indicated  especially  on  Pine  land  areas. 

Fire  lines  needed  in  Pine  lands. 

2.  Insects:     Sawfly   has   injured   over  half  of   all  Tamarack. 
Insects  also  work  on  Pine  land  areas,  injuring  young  stuff,  even 
Jack  Pine. 

3.  Late  Frosts  severe  until  end  of  May,  some  years  in  June; 
kill  back  new  foliage  oh  native  trees. 

4.  Heavy  wet  snows  break  down  young  timber,  notably  Pine, 
every  year  on  this  property. 

5.  Tee  on  trees  is  a  common  trouble  and  destroys  much  timber 
and  opens  up  Crowns  to  disease. 


78  FOREST  REGULATION 

6.  Wind  storms  have  caused  several  large  windfalls  in  Sect..  .  . 

and  Sect ;  they  are  rare,  accidental,  i.  e.,  there  is  no  regular 

storm  r.oad  here. 

.7.  Diseases  of  trees  have  caused  large  amount  of  defect,  in  all 
kinds  of  timber ;  but  the  matter  is  no  worse  .than  may  be  expected 
in  all  old  stands  of  wild  woods  and  therefore  needs  no  special 
consideration. 

8.  Timber  trespass  is  a  common  trouble  here,  it  will  continue 
and  even  be  worse  as  more  people  come  into  the  district.  Only  a 
regular  organization,  patrol,  etc.,  will  prevent  this  loss. 

k.    Timber  Contracts,  and  Rights  of  Way. 

Two  contracts  exist  for  timber: 

1.  J.  D.  has  contract  for  all  Hemlock  in  Sections: The 

contract  runs   for  twenty  years  and  ends    1922.     Price  $3.00  per 
M.  ft.,  bark  thrown  in.     No  limits  as  to  area,  he  can  come  back  over 
any  area  if  he  likes.    This  contract  means  that  J.  D.  has  a  right  to 
cut  and  exploit  all  over  this  area  until  1922  ;  and  while  his  work 
has  not  been  worse  than  that  of  others,  it  does : 

Break  down  hardwood  timber  not  ready  to  be  cut. 

Leave,  in  places,  large  masses  of  Hemlock  tops. 

Keep  people  in  the  woods  during  summer  peeling  bark,  and  in 
fact,  at  all  times.  These  people  need  watching. 

Prevent  any  proper  treatment  of  these  lands. 

Would  recommend  one  of  the  following : 

Buy  off  J.  D.  outright.  He  has  still  standing  here  about  ten 
million  feet  and  it  is  worth  to  him  about  $5.00  per  M.  ft.  As  he 
pays  only  $3.00,  an  offer  of  $2.00  per  M.  ft.  may  tempt  him. 

Folknv  J.  D.  with  a  logging  job  and  reduce  the  loss  through  his 
wprk.  In  this  case  it  is  worth  at  least  $1500  to  get  some  compromise 
which  will  make  J.  D.  work  the  land  over  according  to  some  definite 
plan,  agreed  upon,  and  also  to  contract,  not  to  return  to  any  lands 
once  cut  over. 

2.  X.  Smith  has  a  contract  for  the  Cedar  in  Sect The 

contract  runs  for  ten  years,  ends  1915,  prices: 

Poles :  size  25  ft 

size  30  ft . ,  etc. 

Ties  ,  etc. 


SAMPLE    REPORT  79 

No  restrictions,  no  re-arrangement  of  prices.  Little  is  to  be  said  or 
done  about  this  Contract;  it  was  a  mistake  financially,  the  stuff  is 
worth  twice  what  he  pays  for  it. 

3.  The  J.  &  R.  Co.  have  right  of  way  for  their  Logging  Rail- 
way through  Sect ,  about  ten  miles  in  all ;  they  paid  for  all 

timber  cut,  but  were  not  compelled  to  clear  up  brush.  They  banked 
all  tops  on  both  sides  of  right  of  way  right  into  edge  of  timber. 
Also,  they  make  no  effort  at  fire  protection  by  spark  arresters  or 
patrol.  This  should  be  remedied  and  arrangements  for  this  should 
be  made  with  the  Company.  It  is  worth  $2000  to  the  property  to 
get  this  done. 

i.  Expenses  and  Present  Organization  used  in  taking  care  of 
the  Property. 

1.  Taxes.     Assessment  at  full  value   (by  law)  is  as  follows: 
Hardwood  and  Hemlock  timber.  15000  acres  at  $15 — $225,003 

Pine  timber 5000  acres  at  30 —  1 50,000 

Swamp  timber   4000  acres  at  5 —     20,000 

Cut  over  lands   26000  acres  at  2 —     52,000 

$447,000 

Tax  rate  21  per  1000  .'.  Taxes  total  $9387. 

Assessments  are  still  on  increase,  and  even  the  rate  may  in- 
crease considerably,  as  it  is  now  up  to  35  per  Mill  in  some  parts  of 
the  county.  The  average  tax  rate  for  county  is  21  per  Mill,  for  the 
State  17  per  Mill.  The  State  has  not  begun  to  consider  a  rational 
system  of  forest  taxation  but  is  expected  to  do  so  in  near  future. 
The  preferred  form  as  at  present  discussed  is  the  flat  rate  on  soil, 
together  with  a  10%  stumpage  tax  at  time  of  cutting. 

2.  Other  expenses,  yearly: 

a.  Local  attorney  as  agent,  retainer  per  year $2000 

Looks  after  timber  contracts,  tax  affairs,  trespass,  and 
engages  cruiser,  etc.,  to  examine  lands  at  times. 

b.  Cruisers  and  others  engaged  as  needed,  average  for 
three  years   2000 

c.  Improvements :  Cottage  at  lake,  roads  and  trail  aver- 
age per  year  .  .  . . 2500 

d.  Trespass  suits  and  incidentals,  average  cost  per  year.  .     600 

$7100 


80  FORKST  REGULATION 

3.  A  proper  forest  organization  can  save  expenses  a,  b  &  d, 
and  also  prevent  future  losses  by  fire  and  avoidable  timber  deteriora- 
tion (by  prompt  and  well  planned  cutting).  The  loss  by  fire  in  the 
three  years  (since  present  ownership  began)  have  been  small,  but 
may  be  expected  in  any  dry  year  to  mount  up  to  $io,ooo-$2o,ooo  in 
a  single  year.  The  loss  by  deterioration  and  unused  land  is  great 
and  amounts  to  more  than  the  entire  expense  of  a  forest 
organization. 

Notes  with  regard  to  the  foregoing  Sample  Report. 

1.  There  is  no  effort  at  exact  Age  Classes.     This  seemed  un- 
necessary since  the  field  data  in  this  forest,  especially  the  Hardwood 
type  make  the  Age  Class  work  largely  a  rough  estimate  or  a  matter 
of  mere  size. 

2.  Matters  of  Improvement  and  Business  were  left  out,  and 
the  subjects  of  Volume  and  Yield  Tables  merely  indicated. 

3.  Similarly  the  nature  of  the  case  prevented  many  kinds  of 
interesting  forest  affairs  and  conditions  from  appearing  here,  not- 
ably :    Turpentine  Industry  as  it  exists  in  the  South ;  Grazing  as 
practiced  and  important  in  the  West ;  Fish  and  Game  affairs  as  they 
exist  in  Europe  and  also  in  some  of  our  Eastern  forest  properties. 
The  manner  of  treatment  of  these  may  be  inferred  from  the  fore- 
going ;  the  principles  are  the  same ;  each  is  treated  in  its  relation  to 
the  Business  (Income  arid  Expense),  Utilization  and  assurance  of 
future   supply,   including   its   effect  on   Silviculture   and   especially 
Protection. 


PART  III.    PLANS. 


GENERAL  PLANS. 

A.    GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

a.  General  Plans  and  Detail  Plans  together  form  the  Work- 
ing Plan  proper.     Reports  tell  the  owner  what  he  has,  Plans  teH 
him  what  he  can  do. 

b.  The  General  Plan  usually  applies  to  the  entire  forest  or 
property  ("Revier"  in  Germ.),  the  Detail  Plans  for  Protection,  for 
Improvements,  for  Planting,  etc.,  also  apply  to  the  entire  forest,  but 
Detail  Plans  for  Regulation  of  the  Cut  in  Amount  and  Location, 
and  consequent  Regulation  of  Age  Classes  do  not  always  apply  to 
the  entire  forest,  since  each  Working  Section  receives  a  separate 
Plan.     Where  a  forest  is  small  and  uniform  in  Site  and  Stands,  t^e 
entire  forest  may  have  but  one  plan.     But  even  the  General  Plan  in 
its   directions   as   to    Species,    Silviculture,   Rotation,   takes   up   the 
matter  by  Working  Sections.     Large  forests,  such  as  some  of  our 
Xational  Forests  will  require  special  treatment,  and  may  better  be 
divided  into  several  parts,  like  so  many  distinct  properties,  each  with 
its  distinct  General  and  Detail  Plans. 

c.  The  -property,  the  Forest,  composed  of  land  and  timber,  is 
assumed  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  raising  timber  and  the  plans 
must  tell  what  should  be  done  to  make  the  best  possible  use  of  this 
property. 

But  the  purpose  is  not  always  the  same.  A  forest  in  Wyoming 
may  be  as  valuable  for  its  grazing  possibilities  as  for  timber ;  in 
Wisconsin  it  may  be  merely  a  matter  of  raising  timber;  in  the 
pinery  of  Alabama  it  would  certainly  also  be  used  to  produce  Naval 
Stores ;  while  in  Maine  or  Washington  the  waterpowers,  tourist 
.business  and  hunting  and  fishing  opportunities  might  outweigh  the 


82  FOREST  REGULATION 

raising  of  timber  in   importance.     Accordingly,   even  the  General 
Plan  for  the  forest  is  not  always  the  same,  but  varies  with  locality. 

d.  The  General   Plan   as   well   as   Detail   Plans  are   not  fixed 
affairs,  but  change  with  time  and  development.     In  Germany  the 
plan  of  Protection  may  be  omitted  entirely  because  protection  here 
is  old,  and  there  is  nothing  to  be  modified.    In  the  United  States,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  plan  of  Protection  may  be  and  often  is  the  first 
and  most  important  plan  to  make  and  develop. 

e.  The  distinction  between   General   and  Detail   Plans   is   not 
sharp  and  consistent.     In  Montana  the  Grazing  Plan  would  be  im- 
portant and  deserve  a  place  in   General  as  well   as  in  the  Detail 
Plans ;  in  Michigan  grazing,  if  allowed  at  all,  would  be  a  trivial 
matter  and  form  part  of  the  Detail  Plans  of  Secondary  Utilization. 

f.  General  Plans  deal  with  all  large  and  important  features  of 
the  enterprise.     They  sum  up  briefly  dominant  conditions  ;  outline 
methods  to  be  used,  and  the  object  to  be  attained. 

Usually  they  cover : 

1.  The  objects  of  the  forest-business,  or  the  objects  of  the 
owner  in  buying  the  forest  and  conducting  this  business. 

2.  Species,  or  Kinds  of  timber  which  the  forest  is  to  raise. 

3.  Methods   of   Silviculture,   or  methods  to   be   employed   in 
raising  the  crop  of  timber. 

4.  Rotation,  or  how  old  the  crop  of  timber  is  to  be  when  cut. 

5.  Regulation  of  the  Cut  in  Amount  and  in  Location,  condi- 
tion of  Age  Classes,  distribution  of  young1  and  old  stands  on  the 
property  and  a  plan  for  greater  regularity  in  Age  Classes  and  more 
satisfactory  distribution. 

The  above  five  topics  usually  make  up  General  Plans  in  text- 
books treating  of  the  old  settled  conditions  of  the .  state  forests 
abroad.  In  a  new  country  like  ours,  and  wherever  new  enterprises 
are  to  be  developed,  several  additional  lines  of  work  require  atten- 
tion in  these  General  Plans.  Among  these  are : 

6.  Plans  of  Improvements,  particularly  the  development  of 
roads,  trails,  telephone  lines,  suitable  housing  for  help,  etc. 

7.  Plans  of  Utilization,  or  plans  of  logging  timber,  policies 
and  regulations  in  cases  of  timber  sales  on  stump,  and  then  also 
plans    for   secondary   utilization,    such   as   grazing,   turpentine,   tan 
bark,  etc. 


CF,NF,RAI,  PLANS  83 

8.  Plans  of  Protection,  chiefly  fire-protection.     Risk,  danger 
points   or   areas,    danger-months   or   periods,    proper   patrol,    most 
effective   improvements,   the   organization   of   extra   help,   and   co- 
operation. 

9.  Estimates  and  Apportionment  of   Income  and   Expenses 
together  with  a  statement  of  Personnel  or  help. 

Where  parts  of  the  lands  are  used  for  water  power  sites, 
tourists'  camps,  etc.,  a  definite  policy  or  General  Plan  for  these 
enterprises  should  be  worked  out,  but  this  is  no  longer  within  the 
sphere  of  forestry  proper,  and  therefore  need  not  be  considered  here. 


B.    THE  OBJECTS  OF  MANAGEMENT. 

What  do  we  keep  and  develop  the  property  for? 

a.  In  Central  Europe  the  object  is,  generally,  to  raise  crops  of 
timber  most  demanded  in  the  market.     This  applies  to  over  90%  of 
all  woods.     Apparently  this  is  the  desire  of  the  owner,  and  is  made 
much  of  in  the  books.     But  in  reality  it  is  more  a  matter  of  condi- 
tions than  of  desire.     In  a  number  of  States  the  law  compels  the 
owner  to  stay  in  the  business  of  forestry  and  do  it  reasonably  well. 
Even  where  he  has  the  liberty  to  clear  land,  he  must  chose  between 
forestry  or  clearing.    In  the  latter  case  he  ceases  to  be  of  interest  in 
this  connection.     Where  he  stays  in  forestry,  it  is  good  business, 
site  and  market  which  determine  for  him  the  limited  choice.     In 
mountains  the  climate  forbids  raising  Oak,  etc.,  on  the  sands  of 
North  Germany  the  site  compels  him  to  use  Pine. 

b.  In  our  own  country  the  same  will  be  true.    While  a  farmer 
in  the  Ohio  Valley  may  raise  a  variety  of  timber,  practice  Coppice 
and  Selection  Method,  etc.,  the  owner  of  larger  forests  rarely  has 
a  like  range  of  choice.    In  the  Northern  Spruce  region  it  is  generally 
Spruce  or  scrub  hardwoods;  Spruce  alone  pays  and  the  choice  of 
the  owner  has  little  play  (provided  it  is  to  be  a  forest  and  not  mere 
game  park,  etc.).     On  the  sands  of  the  Lake  Region  and  South,  in 
the  Lodge  Pole  forests  of  the  Rockies,  in  much  of  the  Yellow  Pine, 
and  in  all  Alpine  woods  of  the  West,  the  Site  decides,  and  the  owner 
has  merely  choice  of  forestry  or  not  forestry.    He  may  be  penurious 
and  fail  to  provide  funds  for  protection,  etc.,  it  is  true,  but  this  will 


84  FOREST  REGULATION 

readily  lead  to  devastation  and  ruin,  and  the  ownership  will  change. 
The  desire  of  the  owner  is  also  limited  by  market.  The  owner  may 
desire  to  cut  Lodgepole  at  sixty  years  of  age,  but  if  it  takes  150 
years  to  get  a  railway  tie,  and  ties  are  the  smallest  stuff  his  market 
can  take,  the  desire  of  the  owner  is  of  little  consequence. 

c.  In  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  woods  are  held  in  a 
great  variety  of  ownership  and  conditions  of  market,  transportation, 
etc.,  so  that  the  immediate  object  of  holding  timber  at  present 
varies  from  that  of  the  small  lumberman  who  buys  stumpage  for 
immediate  cutting  to  that  of  the  National  Government  in  its  per- 
manent policy  with  regard  to  large  holdings  in  National  Forests. 
In  the  one  case  there  is  no  thought  of  forestry,  not  even  protection, 
the  forest  is  merely  a  mass  of  logs  on  the  stump;  in  the  other  it  is 
modern  forestry,  good  protection  and  well  planned  utilization  and 
silviculture. 

In  the  former  case  no  plan  is  made,  none  wanted ;  in  the  latter 
case  we  find  great  activity  in  perfecting  knowledge  concerning  the 
forest,  constant  planning  and  a  prompt  adaptation  and  modification 
to  meet  new  requirements  and  to  use  new  information.  Numerous 
intermediate  cases  or  conditions  exist,  and  for  that  reason  we  make 
and  will  make  for  many  years  to  come,  a  variety  of  Working 
Plans,  which  will  differ  as  to  completeness  and  emphasis.  Some  of 
these  will  be  little  more  than  Plans  of  Protection  (chiefly  against 
fire),  others  will  lay  stress  on  utilization,  while  still  others  will 
introduce  improvements  and  the  beginnings  of  Silviculture. 

The  following  cases  of  ownership  affecting  present  objects  of 
holding  timber  appear  of  interest  in  the  United  States  now : 

1.  Woodlot   of   the   farm.      If   this   is   permanent   at   all,   the 
object  is  to  produce  a  home  supply  of  fuel  and  other  timber.     In 
New  England  and  the  South,  larger  woodlots  produce  for  general 
market  and  approach   regular   forests.     Usually  land  is  relatively 
good,  market  and  convenience  of  getting  out  material  are  of  the 
best,  and  there  should  be  a  good  return  from  the  soil.     A  plan  for 
the  most  intensive   form  of   forestry  is  justified   for  this  class  of 
important  forest  lands. 

2.  Forests  of  the  Lumberman  Owner:  vary  from  those  of 
the  small  owner  of  stumpage  to  be  cut  at  once,  to  the  holdings  of 


OBJECTS  OF  REGULATION  85 

supplies  for  thirty  and  more  years.  In  the  past,  the  plan  of  handling 
the  forest  consisted  in  directions  for  most  economical  exploitation. 
To  this  has  been  added  in  last  fifteen  years,  plans  for  protection  by 
individual  effort  and  cooperative  enterprise,  and  in  a  few  cases 
even  plans  for  a  systematic  cutting  of  timber,  at  least  foreshadowing 
a  Regulation  of  the  Cut  and  also  some  form  of  silviculture.  The 
policy  or  Object. with  this  class  of  Properties  is  rapidly  undergoing 
changes  in  direction  of  real  forestry. 

3.  Forests  of  Pulp  and  Paper  Companies.     Here  large  in- 
vestment stimulates  effort  to  prolong  the  supply  of  timber,  and  the 
fact  that  smaller  sizes  can  be  used  to  good  advantage  and  that  a 
variety  of  species    (especially  of  conifers)    is  used,  facilitates  this 
effort.     Nevertheless  these  people  have  preferred  thus  far  to  lag 
behind  ;  opportunity  is  of  the  best  and  should  be  evident  to  anyone. 
Here,  intensive   forestry,  especially  planting  and  clear  cutting  on 
lands  that  will  grow  timber  rapidly,  is  indicated. 

4.  Miscellaneous  Holdings  of  large  tracts  of  forest  such  as 
the  game  preserves  and  parks  in  the  Adirondacks  and  the  East  and 
South,  holdings  of  Water  Companies,  etc.,  etc.     Here  the  forest  is 
secondary,  it  is  kept  for  beauty,  shelter  of  game,  or  for  protection 
of  the  purity  of  the  water  supply.    Usually  the  object  is  to  keep  the 
forest  with  as  little  expense  as  possible,  and  generally  these  tracts 
are  left,  rather  in  the  hands  of  a  non-technical  ''Caretaker"  than  to 
a  competent  forester.  The  matter  of  income  and  expense  and  assured 
protection  should  decide  these  owners  to  prepare  Working  Plans  and 
to  practice  rather  intensive  forestry. 

5.  Railway  Companies  in  the  United  States  have  been  and  are 
now  among  the  largest  owners  of  forest.     Most  of  their  large  hold- 
ings came  to  them  as  Land  Grants  from  United  States  Government 
to  induce  railway  construction.     A   few  of  these  companies  have 
begun  to  employ  foresters,  most  of  them  prefer  to  sell  their  hold- 
ings,  usually  to  lumber  companies.      Tn  many  cases  the  holdings 
consist  of  inferior  lands,  practically  waste  lands,  as  in  Pennsylvania, 
etc.,  and  of  small  bodies  of  lands  held  in  connection  with  right  of 
way  and  about  stations.     These  Companies  then : 

a.  Hold  for  market  large  bodies  of  Virgin  forest.  Here, 
efforts,  if  any,  are  limited  to  protection  and  to  disposals  of  land  and 
timber,  leasing  of  grazing  lands,  etc. 


86  FOREST  REGULATION 

b.  Hold  waste  lands ;  on  some  of  these  an  effort  at  reforesta- 
tion has  been  made. 

c.  Small  patches  of  ground  along"  their  right  of  way  and  about 
stations.     On  these  patches  the  effort  is  to  beautify,  to  please  the 
traveling  public. 

During  the  last  ten  years  a  few  of  these  companies  have  begun 
to  realize  the  danger  of  a  shortage  in  railway  ties,  and  are  preparing 
to  meet  this  by  going  into  forestry,  buying  suitable  lands  to  provide 
stumpage  and  by  proper  care,  raise  new  supplies.  Here  is  a  field 
for  the  most  intensive  form  of  forestry,  but  as  yet  the  object  itself 
is  still  under  debate,  so  that  a  real  Plan  in  most  cases  does  not  yet 
exist. 

6.  State  Forests.  These  vary  from  virgin  forest  such  as  parts 
of  the  Adirondack  holdings,  through  all  gradations  of  culled  and 
cut  over  woods  to  the  most  desolate  cut  and  burned-over  sand  plains 
of  the  Lake  Region.  Since  the  whole  subject  of  state  forestry  has 
not  yet  begun  to  be  a  real  business  enterprise,  but  is  still  matter  of 
debate,  with  practically  no  recognition  in  the  legislatures  of  the 
several  states  involved,  there  is  neither  policy  nor  appropriation,  in 
fact  not  even  good  will,  and  the  object  of  holding  these  forests  is, 
therefore,  an  uncertain  one,  and  can  only  be  inferred  from  the 
efforts  of  those  interested  in  the  work  itself  and  from  the  little  work 
actually  done. 

The  small  holdings  in  the  New  England  States  were  set  aside 
or  acquired  for  the  sake  of  saving  the  beauty  or  scenery,  protect 
streams,  and  help  as  object  lessons  to  the  people. 

The  state  forests  of  New  York  ostensibly  were  for  scenery  and 
water  preservation ;  in  fact  they  would  never  have  been  bought  and 
certainly  never  have  been  held,  had  it  not  been  for  the  wealthy 
owners  of  summer  homes  in  the  mountains.  The  object  here  does 
not  consider  the  forest  a  crop,  nothing  is  cut,  millions  of  feet  an- 
nually, green  and  dead  stuff,  are  allowed  to  go  to  waste.  The  work 
so  far  consists  in  a  half-hearted  protection  and  show  place  planting, 
there  is  no  forestry,  no  lumbering,  merely  a  holding  of  il/2  million 
acres  of  wild  woods  in  a  state  of  Nature.  Forestry  here  is  still 
forbidden  by  law. 

Pennsylvania  owns  nearly  a  million  acres  of  largely  devastated 
mountain  woods  or  lands  and  is  buving  more ;  she  educates  her 


OHJECTS  IN  STATE  FORESTS  87 

own  foresters  at  Mt.  Alto  ;  and  proposes  to  practice  forestry.  Her 
laws  are  good  and  adequate.  But  in  spite  of  the  excellent  efforts 
of  those  interested,  and  those  directing  the  work,  the  State  has  not 
•  yet  begun  to  treat  the  matter  seriously  in  any  particular  beyond 
permitting  and  encouraging  the  practice  of  forestry.  The  appropria" 
tions  and  the  force  of  men  is  not  20%  of  what  it  should  be,  if  these 
State  lands  are  to  be  converted  into  useful  and  valuable  State 
Forests,  and  while  the  object  is  clearly  stated  in  law,  the  legislature 
has  not  yet  recognized  the  magnitude  and  importance  of  the 
enterprise. 

Michigan,  for  decades,  had  a  fine  opportunity  of  gathering  up 
cut  over  lands,  swamp  lands,  etc.  For  years  she  advertised  six 
million  acres  as  tax  lands.  But  up  to  1913  these  lands  were  sold  at 
nominal  prices.  What  there  is  left  today  as  ''State  Forests"  is 
primarily  areas  of  poor  sandy  lands,  cut-  and  burned-over  re- 
peatedly, until  they  present  far  more  a  problem  of  waste  land 
reforestation  than  the  management  of  State  Forests.  In  keeping 
with  past  policies,  the  object  of  holding  these  lands  today  is  still 
uncertain. 

Wisconsin,  like  Michigan,  continued  in  the  same  policies  of  .land 
disposal  until  1905.  Since  then  certain  areas  have  been  definitely  se2 
aside  as  State  forests ;  the  policy  of  selling  has  been  replaced  by  one 
of  buying  lands;  forestry  is  attempted,  laws  are  adequate  and  all 
that  is  lacking,  is  proper  support  and  appropriation. 

These  few  cases  suffice  to  show  that  with  our  State  Forests, 
the  object  of  holding  and  the  policy  of  management  of  the  lands  set 
aside  for  State  Forests  is  still  in  the  formative  stage.  The  subject 
of  State  Forestry  is  by  far  the  most  important  one  before  the  people 
of  the  United  States.  The  value  of  State  Forests  is  established  in 
Europe  ;  the  object  there,  in  most  states,  is : 

a.  To  assure  a  home  supply  of  timber. 

b.  To  assure  the  continued  best  use  of  large  areas  of  poor 
lands,  of  mountain  country,  sand  plains,  etc. 

c.  To  safeguard  proper  water  distribution. 

d.  To  maintain  the  beauty  of  the  land. 

e.  To  derive  an  income  from  these  properties  for  the  good  of 
the  people. 


88  l-OREST  REGULATION 

7.  National  Forests.  The  object  as  expressed  in  the  original 
laws  was  to  protect  and  preserve  the  forest  and  affect  the  water 
distribution  in  the  mountains  of  the  West.  Today  the  object  has 
taken  the  form  of  a  well  defined  policy  closely  patterned  after  that 
of  State  forests  of  Europe.  This  policy  has  been  put  into  practice 
and  the  National  Forest  Service  today  is  the  only  organization  in 
the  United  States  practicing  Forestry  in  the  most  approved,  up-to- 
date  manner.  It  has  gathered  90%  and  more  of  all  needed  forest 
information  and  has  developed  Working  Plans,  notably  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Forest  Protection,  unequalled  anywhere.  But  the  National 
Forests  cover  a  large  range  of  country,  with  great  diversity  of 
climate,  topography,  market,  etc.  In  keeping,  the  objects  of  manage- 
ment vary  for  different  forests.  On  the  Angeles  in  Southern  Cali- 
fornia where  a  chaparral  is  all  that  has  been  able  to  maintain  itself 
as  cover,  the  object  is  one  of  protection  of  this  cover,  though  its 
value  is  only  in  water  regulation  and  not  in  timber.  On  the  Targhee 
where  a  high  mountain  country  is  covered  with  tracts  of  Lodge 
Pole  and  areas  of  grass  lands,  a  proper  protection  and  use  of  both 
of  these  is  the  object,  and  the  forester  becomes  interested  in  Range 
problems  as  well  as  silviculture  and  logging.  On  the  Snoqualmie 
protection  and  utilization  of  the  great  mass  of  standing  timber  and 
proper  silviculture  or  method  of  cutting  the  old  and  growing  a  new 
crop  of  timber  where  old  stands  are  removed  is  the  object  of  man- 
agement and  the  forester  here,  like  the  forester  of  Germany,  is  first 
and  last  a  timber  farmer. 


C.    CHOICE  OF  SPECIES. 

Right  choice  of  crop  is  important  on  the  farm,  and  ten  times 
more  so  in  the  forest,  where  acorns  planted  today  make  a  forest  to 
be  harvested  in  200  years  hence. 

a.  In  most  cases,  where  we  begin  with  wild  woods,  the  species 
tm  the  ground  are  kept.  But  even  here  there  is  often  a  choice  as  to 
which  to  favor,  and  which  to  suppress  or  eliminate.  In  the  Spruce 
and  hardwood  forests  of  New  England  and  the  Adirondacks  the 
Spruce  is  the  most  valuable  tree  and  is  favored ;  the  same  is  true  of 
White  and  Norway  Pine  in  the  Lake  Region,  Longleaf,  Loblolly  and 


CHOICE;  OF  SPECIES  89 

Shortleaf  of  the  South,  Red  Fir  in  Washington  (West  Side),  Yel- 
low Pine  in  Idaho  and  Montana. 

b.  In  many  cases  site,  climate,  soil  and  drainage  dictate.     A 
cold  Tamarack  Swamp  leaves  little  choice,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
Jack  Pine  Sands ;  and  Alpine  districts  in  the  Rockies  and  Pacific 
countries  call  for  Spruce,  Balsam  and  mountain  Hemlock. 

Where  the  site  is  good,  as  on  good  hardwood  lands  in  the  Ohio 
Valley  and  South,  the  forester  is  largely  directed  by  what  is  wanted, 
by  owner  and  market,  and  may  raise  anything  from  a  Catalpa  fence 
post  to  White  Oak  saw  and  veneer  timber. 

c.  Where  a  mixed  stand  is  desired,  relative  behavior  of  the 
trees  asserts  itself.     Spruce  and  Oak  mixtures  have  proven  failures 
in  Germany,  and  even  Spruce  and  Beech  needs  watching  wherever 
the  Spruce  feels  at  home. 

d.  Where  bare  lands,  are  to  be  reforested,  the  question  often 
arises  as  to  the  value  of  native  as  against  foreign  species  or  species 
from  distant  localities.     Wrhere  no  experiments  are  permissible  the 
native  tree  deserves  preference.    But  the  prevalent  fear  of  "exotics" 
is  largely  unfounded  and  based  more  on  theory  than  practice.     Red 
Fir  in  Germany  has  done  well,  so  has  White  Pirie,  Black  Locust  and 
Red  Oak.     Norway  Spruce  does  well  even  in  warm  and  dry  situa- 
tions in  Southern  Michigan,  and  White  Pine  has  made  good  groves 
on  the  plains. 

e.  Even  under  the  old  settled  conditions  of  Central   Europe 
this  matter  of  Species  is  still  a  problem,  receiving  much  attention  and 
discussion.     Some  serious  mistakes  were  made  in  the  past.     For 
instance,  20-40  years  ago.  Scotch  Pine  was  planted  extensively  in 
parts   of   the   Black   Forest,   where   the   heavy   snows  break   down 
entire  stands  of  these  Pine  poles,  and  give  the  present  forester  no 
end  of  trouble.    Replacement  of  Beech  by  Spruce  and  other  conifers 
is  in  progress  on  account  of  better  incomes.    Then  also  change  from 
pure  forests  to  mixed  forests  is  being  agitated. 

f.  On    large   properties    especially    in    mountain    country    this 
choice  of  species  needs  careful  attention ;  different  parts  of  the  forest 
require  different  species,  and  selection  must  conform  to  site  and 
market,  and  provide  not  so  much  for  the  immediate  but  rather  the 
distant  future,  and  on  all  poorer  lands  the  upkeep  of  site  is  fore- 
most.    In  the  United  States  and  Europe  Market  calls  primarily  for 


90  FOREST  REGULATION 

conifers  and  this  may  be  expected  to  continue.  Occasionally  a  local 
market  demands  special  materials,  wagon  stock,  cooperage  stuff, 
mining  timber,  pulp  and  acid  wood,  poles,  piling,  fence  posts  and 
even  fuel;  but  such  markets  frequently  lack  permanence  to  justify 
stocking  large  areas  with  the  particular  stuff  desired. 

g.  To  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  land  much  can  be  done  in 
the  selection  of  Species.  Generally  hardwoods  are  better  soil  pre- 
servers than  conifers ;  tolerant  kinds  like  Beech  and  Maple  are 
better  than  intolerant  trees  like  Oak,  Poplar,  Birch,  etc.  On  the 
poor  sands  where  only  Pine  makes  a  satisfactory  crop,  underplant- 
ing  with  Beech,  etc.,  alone  has  been  able  to  keep  up  fertility  enough 
to  enable  the  Pine  to  hold  out  to  an  age  of  TOO  years  and  make 
acceptable  sizes.  It  is  primarily  from  this  stand  point  that  able 
authorities  like  Gayer  insisted  on  the  return  to  mixed  forest  in 
Germany. 

h.  Over  millions  of  acres  of  forest  lands  in  the  United  States 
the  combination  of  Site  (land  and  climate)  and  market  allow  but 
little  choice.  Spruce  wall  predominate  in  the  cold  Northeast ;  hard 
Pine  in  the  Southern  Pinery ;  pine  in  the  Lake  States ;  Yellow  Pine 
and  Lodge  Pole  in  the  Rockies,  with  White  Pine  and  Larch  in  the 
Northern  Rockies.  Yellow  Pine  dominates  the  dry  east  side  of 
Sierra  and  Cascades ;  mixed  Conifers  the  west  side,  and  here  Yellow 
Pine  and  Sugar  Pine  and  Balsams  in  California ;  Red  Fir,  Hemlock, 
Balsam,  Cedar  and  Spruce  on  West  Side  of  Oregon  and  Washing- 
ton. High  altitudes  call  for  Spruce,  Balsam,  Alpine  Hemlock  and 
White  Bark  Pine,  while  our  Tamarack  Swramps  call  for  Tamarack, 
Cedar  and  Black  Spruce. 


D.    METHODS  OF  SILVICULTURE. 

a.    Principal   Methods  of  Silviculture. 

As  distinguished  by  the  great  silviculturist  Lorey  may  briefly 
be  outlined  as  follows : 

i.    The  Selection  Method. 

"Plenter  betrieb",  ''Femelbetrieb'',  Lorey. 
Composition:    Pure  or  Mixed. 


SELECTION    METHOD  91 

Age  of  trees  on  any  one  acre:  old,  middle  age  and  young,  i.  e., 
"many"  or  "all  age''  stands. 

Rotation,  or  age  at  which  ripe  timber  is  cut:  Determined  by 
size,  i.  e.,  diameter  limit. 

Cutting:  Stand  is  cut  over  every  ten  or  twenty  years,  i.  e.,  the 
Period  of  Return  is  ten,  or  twenty  years. 

The  cut  takes  out  large  or  ripe  timber  (harvest). 

It  takes — defective  or  poor  timber  (improvement  cut). 

It  takes  out  thinnings,  and  also  provides  for  or  stimulates  re- 
production. 

The  cut  rarely  takes  over  }/±  of  total  volume  of  stand  and  puts 
woods  in  shape  for  next  ten  or  twenty  years. 

Reproduction :  This  is  natural  Reproduction  from  seed ;  in 
hardwoods  also  from  sprouts  (]3asswood,  etc.). 

Result:  A  Selection  Forest  where  trees  of  all  ages  and  sizes 
occupy  the  same  forty-acre  lot,  and  furnish  a  great  variety  of  sizes 
at  any  time  from  a  small  area. 

Advantage:  Keeps  a  forest  cover,  protects  young  stuff  against 
sun,  wind  and  frost ;  protects  soil  against  drying  out  and  erosion. 
It  gives  a  variety  of  sizes  on  a  small  area  of  land ;  and  reproduces 
itself  without  expense. 

Disadvantages:  Costs  more  to  log;  much  injury  to  young 
stuff  by  logging ;  produces  less  timber ;  is  irregular  and  difficult  to 
control  and  therefore  apt  to  be  overcut  or  undercut. 

Applicability:  To  all  species  and  sites,  it  merely  follows 
nature's  methods.  For  good  business  it  should  be  restricted  to 
tolerant  species  and  especially  mixed  forest. 

In  Use  or  Operation:  Probably  the  oldest  method,  formerly 
much  used  abroad ;  today  7%  of  all  German  forests  are  Selection 
Forests,  and  only  about  2%  of  State  Forest  are  in  this  form. 

In  the  United  States  this  method  is  used  in  the  woodlot  and  of 
late  has  been  introduced  in  parts  of  National  forests.  It  is  the 
proper  method  in  all  rough  mountain  country,  in  "protective'  forest, 
and  is  well  suited  for  a  beginning  in  forestry  in  most  of  our  large 
wild  woods  districts.  It  is  nature's  method  in  our  forests  of  hard- 
woods, and  mixed  stands,  but  is  not  the  natural  form  everywhere, 
as  is  often  claimed.  In  forests  of  intolerants,  pure  stands  of  hard 


92  FOREST  REGULATION 

Pines,  Tamarack,  etc.,  the  even  aged  stands  predominate  and 
nature's  method  is  a  form  of  "clear-cutting"  with  seed  trees,  and 
"seeding  from  the  side." 

2.    Shelterwood  Method. 

"Schirmschlagbetrieb"  of  Gayer  and  of  Lorey  and  in  part 
Lorey's  "Femelschlagbetrieb." 

Composition:   Pure  and  Mixed. 

Age  of  trees  in  any  stand :  Even  Aged,  i.  e.,  trees  are  nearly 
enough  the  same  age,  so  that  the  small  difference  is  not  apparent  in 
older  stands. 

Rotation:  a  definite  period,  ripe  timber  is  cut  at  some  given 
age  and  not  merely  when  of  some  particular  size. 

Cutting,  or  Method  of  Procedure :    For  illustration : 

a.  Cut  out  about  one-third  of  stand,  preferably  largest  trees, 
to  open  up  entire  stand  and  admit  more  light.     Then  wait  for  seed 
year. 

b.  After  seeding,  take  out  another  one-third  of  stand  to  make 
room  and  light  for  seedlings,  and  leave  the  last  one-third  of  stand 
as  an  even  shelter  to  protect  seedlings  against  sun,  wind,  and  frost 
and  also  to  hinder  a  rapid  development  of  weeds  and  brush. 

c.  When  Reproduction  is  well  started  and  no  longer  in  need  of 
shelter,  but  rather  in  need  of  light,  the  last  one-third  of  the  ripe 
timber  is  removed. 

In  practice  the  method  varies ;  it  may  use  only  one  seed  year, 
or  several,  it  may  take  off  the  stand  in  two  cuts  or  in  six  cuts ;  it 
may  take  only  six  years  (as  in  Pine)  or  forty  years  as  in  Balsam  and 
Beech  in  Baden ;  it  may  rely  entirely  on  natural  reproduction,  or  it 
may  normally  employ  artificial  help  as  in  Beech  forests  of  Denmark. 

Reproduction,  normally  is  natural,  and  takes  place  before  the 
old  stand  is  entirely  removed. 

Results :  Ordinarily  an  even  aged  stand  where  trees  differ  only 
5-10  years  in  age;  but  in  the  "slow"  forms  the  stand  is  not  even 
aged  and  resembles  the  Selection  Forest ;  trees  vary  from  30-40 
years  in  age. 

Advantages:  Combines  the  good  qualities  of  Selection  with 
those  of  all  methods  leading  to  an  even  age  stand.  Protects  Site 
and  reproduction  ;  it  enables  careful  control,  assures  better  care  in 


METHOD  93 

thinning,  raises  better  and  more  timber,  than  the  Selection  forest; 
and  it  gives  better  utilization  of  site  during  the  period  of  reproduc- 
tion than  does  the  Clear  Cutting  system,  where  the  land  is  not 
properly  utilized  for  a  period  of  several  years. 

Disadvantages:  Danger  from  blowdown  of  last  part  of  old 
stand  More  costly  logging,  danger  of  costly  delays  when  seeding 
fails ;  expensive  artificial  reproduction,  where  much  is  done  to 
correct  failures ;  with  intolerant  species  is  added  great  loss  of  repro- 
duction for  lack  of  light,  or  else  a  cover  of  the  land  by  weeds  and 
brambles. 

Applicability:  It  is  claimed  by  its  advocates  to  apply  to  prac- 
tically all  species.  In  actual  practice  in  Germany  it  is  generally  a 
failure  and  has  been  abandoned  except  in  Beech  and  Balsam.  From 
this  it  is  safe  to  say  that  it  can  well  be  employed  in  tolerant  hard- 
woods and  conifers.  Spruce  often  fails  by  this  method  in  pure 
forest,  but  works  well  if  mixed  with  hardwoods. 

In  Use:  An  old  method  developed  in  Beech  forests.  Today 
in  use  chiefly  in  Beech  and  Balsam,  very  little  in  Spruce,  Pine  and 
Oak.  About  12%  of  all  German  Forests  is  Beech  timber  forest,  and 
about  2%  is  Balsam,  and  these  14%  are  practically  all  handled  under 
this  system.  Both  of  these  trees  require  shelter  in  the  first  few 
years.  In  United  States  practically  unknown,  and  certainly  never  in 
regular  practice.  Well  suited  to  mixed  hardwoods  and  hardwoods 
with  Spruce  and  Hemlock.  Spruce  alone  cannot  stand  this  method 
on  account  of  blow  down,  unless  the  stand  is  reproduced,  very 
slowly,  and  is  not  in  exposed  positions. 

3.    Clear  Cutting  with  Natural  Reproduction. 

Pairt  of  Lorey's  "Kahlschlagbetrieb"  and  of  Gayers  "Saum- 
schlagbetrieb."  Including  the  "Seed  Tree"  methods  introduced 
in  United  States. 

Composition:  Practically  always  pure  forest,  with  a  little  of 
other  species  "blown  in"  accidentally. 

Age  of  Stand :  Generally  even  aged ;  depending  on  success  of 
seeding. 

Rotation :  A  definite  period ;  but  timber  must  be  old  enough  to 
seed  abundantlv. 


94  FOREST  REGULATION 

Cutting:  Ripe  timber  is  cut  clear,  normally  in  strips.  Where 
west  winds  prevail,  strips  run  North  and  South  and  work  starts  on 
the  east  side  of  any  stand.  Best  authorities  prescribe  narrow  strips, 
not  over  100  yards  wide. 

Reproduction:  The  strip  of  land  cleared  of  timber  is  seeded 
from  the  side,  i.  e.,  we  do  not  expect  seedlings  under  the  stand  or 
trees,  but  away  from  the  stand  or  trees,  on  open,  cleared  land. 

Result:  An  even  age  stand  made  up  of  kinds  from  which  the 
seed  is  derived,  generally  one  species,  or  pure  stand. 

Advantage:  Cheap  logging,  cheap  reproduction,  simple,  even 
age  stand. 

Disadvantage :  Care  land  exposed  to  sun  and  wind  covers  with 
brambles  and  weeds,  dries  out  and  thus  hinders  reproduction.  The 
seeding  is  rarely  satisfactory,  and  if  it  must  be  helped  artificially, 
is  costly. 

Applicable:  Only  used  in  timber  with  light  seed,  chiefly  in 
pine  and  other  conifers,  also  Aspen,  Birch,  etc.  With  us  in  Lob- 
lolly, Jack  Pine.  Shortleaf,  also  in  Tamarack  and  Cedar  Swamp, 
Lodge  Pole,  Red  Fir,  etc. 

In  Use :  Formerly  this  method  was  much  used  in  North  Ger- 
many in  Pinery  (on  sands),  and  then  modified  in  various  ways 
(Coiilissenschlage"  of  the  Germans).  Today  very  little  is  done 
with  this  method  in  Germany,  and  it  is  not  recommended  by  best 
authorities  (see  Borggreve  "Holzzucht",  p.  185,  etc.,  and  especially 
p.  200,  and  see  also  Reuss,  Gayer,  Weise,  Ney  of  later  authors). 

This  method  has  been .  modified  as  follows :  The  lumberman 
either  unable  under  the  particular  conditions,  or  unwilling  to  cut 
timber  in  small  bodies,  demanded  that  he  be  allowed  to  log  off  the 
land  in  large  bodies,  up  to  several  thousand  acres.  To  assure  some 
reproduction  of  Pine  (the  usual  species)  and  to  give  to  young 
growth  the  benefit  of  plenty  of  light,  and,  in  most  cases,  to  appease 
the  lumberman  who  was  unwilling  even  to  leave  a  reasonable  portion 
of  old  timber,  a  few  trees  per  acre  were  left  as  seed  trees,  as  few 
as  one  tree  per  acre  have  been  recommended  and  as  little  as  5%  of 
ripe  stuff  was  insisted  upon  and  secured.  Since  these  lone  seed 
trees  in  most  cases  were  left  on  relatively  large  areas,  it  was  clearly 
a  case  of  Clear  Cutting  with  seed  trees  to  seed  from  the  side.  In 
some  cases  (Lodgepole)  lone  trees  promptly  were  thrown  by  wind 


CUCAR  CUTTING  95 

and  the  method  was  further  modified.  Groups  of  trees,  blocks  of 
an  acre  or  more  in  size  were  left;  then  also  the  old  method  of 
"Coulissen"  was  revived  in  places.  In  United  States  all  this  is 
experimental  as  yet. 

In  the  last  few  years  there  has  heen  further  development,  a 
larger  and  larger  number  of  trees  are  left,  until  this  "seed  tree 
method''  is  transforming  into  a  form  of  open  Selection  method  or  a 
form  near  the  "Zweihiebiger  Hochwald",  as  described  by  Weise  in 
his  Waldbau.  To  call  this  Shelterwoods  seems  a  misnomer,  for  it 
lacks  the  two  principal  elements :  Shelter  for  seedlings  and  working 
to  even  age  stand,  the  object  being  primarily  to  suit  present  condi- 
tions of  market,  and  avoid  large  areas  of  clear-cut  lands. 

This  method  of  rapidly  clearing  the  land  of  old  timber  and 
developing  even  aged  stands  appears  to  have  been  nature's  way  in 
most  of  our  pineries,  Tamarack  swamps,  and  large  parts  of  the 
forests  of  Red  Fir. 

Unintentionally  this  method  has  been  used  in  Loblolly  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  lead  to  the  name  of  Old  Field  Pine. 

Large  areas  of  burns  have  covered  themselves  with  Jack  Pine, 
Lodgepole,  Red  Fir,  and  Tamarack,  indicating  the  suitability  of  this 
method  in  United  States. 

4.    Clear  Cutting  with  Artificial  Reproduction. 

Composition:  A  mixed  stand  is  feasible,  but  in  practice  the 
stand  is  pure. 

Age  :     Strictly  even  aged. 

Rotation:   A  definite  age  is  adhered  to. 

Cutting :   The  entire  stand  is  cut  clear. 

Reproduction:  By  sowing  seed  (even  cones)  or  by  planting 
young  trees  2-5  years  old,  raised  in  nurseries ;  costs  $5 -$20  per  acre, 
and  normally  succeeds  perfectly. 

Result :   An  even  age,  usually  pure  stand. 

Advantage :  Land  does  not  lie  idle  for  years,  waiting  for  nature 
to  seed  it ;  if  five-year  transplants  are  used  there  is  a  gain  of  at  least 
several  years  over  seeding  from  the  side,  and  this  may  mean  as 
much  as  $I5~$2O  per  acre.  Logging  is  cheap;  in  many  localities  in 
Germany  the  money  saved  by  not  having  to  skid  logs  and  wood  to 
the  roadway  (the  common  way)  will  suffice  to  plant  the  area  3-5 


96  FOREST  REGULATION 

times  with  good  transplants.  Produces  largest  return  per  acre  in 
volume,  quality  and  therefore  in  income,  allows  best  care  in  thinning 
by  a  proper  spacing  at  the  start. 

Disadvantages :  Leaves  the  land  without  a  cover  for  several 
years  (while  trees  small)  and  exposed  to  sun  and  wind.  This  is 
of  little  consequence  on  all  better  lands,  as  the  cover,  when  once 
established,  stays  for  sixty  and  more  years. 

The  cost,  even  though  not  large,  is  not  justified  in  very  cold, 
rough  mountain  lands,  remote  and  unprofitable  under  any  condition  ; 
but  is  justified  under  any  ordinary  conditions  such  as  exist  today  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  eastern  United  States  and  Europe.  It  leads  to 
pure  forest.  This  claim  is  not  necessarily  true,  but  in  practice  this 
condition  has  been  established.  How  far  this  is  injurious  we  are 
not  certain  as  yet,  except  that  large  areas  of  one  species  suffer 
greatly  when  insect  calamities  arise. 

Applicability:  German  experience  indicates  that  Pine,  Spruce, 
Larch,  Red  Fir  and  Oak  are  best  raised  by  this  method ;  Beech  and 
Balsam  do  not  thrive  without  shelter  while  young  and  are  not  raised 
on  clear  cut  areas.  Generally  it  is  safe  to  say  that  this  method 
succeeds  with  all  but  a  few  sensitive  species  which  require  protection 
in  the  first  few  years. 

In  actual  Use :  This  method  has  displaced  all  others  from  a 
large  portion  of  the  German,  Swiss,  etc.,  forests.  It  has  proven 
simplest,  safest  and  most  profitable  and  all  effort  and  preaching  to 
induce  the  forester  to  return  to  a  mixed  forest  with  natural  repro- 
duction has  not  had  any  appreciable  effect. 

In  United  States  this  method  has  been  started  and  is  rapidly 
making  progress,  East  and  West  alike.  It  is  the  only  hope  for  at 
least  one-half  of  our  cut-  and  burned-over  lands  in  the  Great  Lakes 
Region,  Pennsylvania  and  the  South. 

These  four  fundamental  methods  of  the  regular  "timber  forest" 
have  been  and  are  modified  a  great  deal  in  ordinary  practice.  In 
the  Selection  Forest  artificial  reproduction  is  often  employed ;  the 
same  is  true  of  the  Shelterwood  and  regularly  in  the  method  of 
Seeding  from  the  Side.  The  Shelterwood  Method,  as  stated,  may 
drag  out  the  process  of  reproduction  over  forty  and  more  years  and 
approach  the  Selection  Method ;  or  it  may  cut  everything  in  two 


corricic  .M KTI LOD  97 

cuts  within  ten  years,  and  approach  Clear  Cutting  with  a  mixture 
of  natural  and  artificial  reproduction. 

Then  also  any  method  may  be  employed  on  a  large  area,  or  a 
small  one;  on  areas  in  the  shape  of  strips  or  circles,  (groups,  spots 
and  patches)  scattered  over  the  forest.  l>ivt  whether  the  area  on 
which  we  cut  clear  is  a  regular  forty-acre  tract,  or  a  number  of  small, 
say  three-acre  tracts,  scattered  over  a  few  forty  acres,  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  method  itself;  it  is  still  Clear  Cutting  with  natural 
or  artificial  reproduction  as  the  case  may  be.  Unfortunately  a  great 
deal  of  coining  of  names  has  been  done  in  this  connection  so  that 
Mayr  in  his  Waldhau  enumerates  sixty-four  different  methods  of 
treatment  where  in  reality  only  about  half  a  dozen  methods  exist 
and  receive  slightly  different  application  to  suit  particular  condi- 
tions. That  the  many  names  coined  for  real,  or  only  supposed, 
variations  merely  lead  to  confusion  and  not  to  clearness  and  better 
understanding  has  already  been  demonstrated  in  the  United  States 
as  well  as  abroad. 

5.    The  Coppice  Method. 
German  "Niederwald." 

Composition :  Usually  hardwoods,  pure  and  mixed.  In  United 
States  so  far  chiefly  Oak  and  Chestnut;  (Red  Wood  in  California) 
Locust,  Catalpa,  etc. 

Age :   Even  aged. 

Rotation:    15-40  years. 

Cutting:  Cut  clear,  with  axe,  and  cut  slanting  stump  and  close 
to  the  ground. 

Reproduction:  From  sprouts,  at  times  may  need  a  little  help 
bv  planting. 

Result:  Coppice  woods,  even  age  stands,  generally  small  tim- 
ber, cordwood  and  poles,  even  tie  size ;  also  tan  bark. 

Advantage :  Cheap  logging,  simple  to  handle ;  regular,  little 
subject  to  windfall,  etc.  Small  capital,  inexpensive. 

Disadvantage:  Needs  fair  land;  mild  climate;  can  use  only 
hardwoods  (excq)t  Redwood)  ;  raises  only  small  stuff  not  demanded 
by  big  market.  Small  income  has  resulted  in  gradual  degeneration 
of  French  coppice. 


98  FOREST  REGULATION 

Applicable :  On  good  land,  mild  climate,  with  home  or  local 
market  for  small  stuff  of  hardwoods. 

In  Use:  In  about  7%  of  all  German  Forests;  only  i%  of  all 
state  forests  in  Germany ;  extensively  used  in  France  and  the 
Mediterranean  countries.  In  United  States  woodlots  ;  formerly,  in 
Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  etc.,  in  regular  way  for  iron  works,  now 
largely  abandoned.  The  large  forests  of  United  States  and  North 
Europe  are  generally  conifers,  on  rather  poor  lands  and  little  suited 
to  coppice. 

6.    The  Standard  Coppice. 

"Mittlewald"  of  the  Germans. 

Composition :  Pure  or  mixed ;  the  Coppice  is  of  hardwoods, 
and  usually  also  the  "standards",  but  this  is  not  necessarily  so. 

Age  of  any  Stand :   Coppice  is  even  aged. 

The  Standards  vary  in  age  by  multiples  of  the  rotation  of  the 
Coppice.  If  the  rotation  of  the  Coppice  is  twenty  years,  and  the 
Coppice  growth  on  any  one  acre  is  fifteen  years  old,  then  the 
Standards  are : 

15  years,  35  years,  55  years,  75  years,  etc.,  old. 
This  regularity  in  actual  practice  rarely  exists. 

Rotation:   Coppice  with  short  rotation,  15-30. 

Standards  with  long  rotation,  60-200. 

Reproduction :  Coppice,  and  artificial,  usually  planting  of  large 
plants  for  standards. 

Results:  An  uneven  stand,  often  resembling,  in  practice,  a 
wild  woods,  old  and  young  stuff  on  every  acre.  Raises  cheap  cop- 
pice stuff  as  well  as  large,  but  usually  limby  timber. 

Advantages:  Like  Coppice,  except  that  large  stuff  is  also 
produced. 

Disadvantages:  All  those  of  Coppice,  except  that  it  produces 
also  larger  stuff,  but.  in  addition,  is  very  complex  and  difficult  to 
handle.  Little  control,  little  order,  a  regular  "gardener's''  job. 

In  Use:  Formerly  much  used  in  all  good  hardwood  districts 
of  Germany  and  France.  Rapidly  giving  way  to  simpler  methods, 
usually  Shelterwood. 


CHOICE  OF   METHOD  99 

In  United  States  never  systematically  practiced ;  some  of  the 
woodlots  present  conditions  and  appearance  of  a  regular  Standard 
Coppice.  Outside  of  the  woodlot  there  is  no  place  for  this  method  in 
United  States. 

b.    What  Method  to  Use. 

1.  In  the  beginning  stages  of  forestry  in  our  wildwoods  it  is 
rarely  possible  to  introduce  at  once  the  method  best  suited  to  Species 
and  Site,  and  it  will  be  necessary  for  many  years  to  come,  to  com- 
promise between  that  which  should  be  done  and  that  which  can  be 
done  under  given  conditions.     Nevertheless,  it  is  well  at  this  point 
to  warn  against  too  great  stress  on  given  conditions,  for  the  most 
important   of   these,   transportation   and   market,   are   changing   so 
rapidly  that  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  contract  and  otherwise  plan  for 
long  periods  ahead  on  the  assumption  that  things  remain  as  they 
are.    This  is  being  realized  of  late,  and  most  of  our  timber  contracts 
no  longer  run  for  indefinite  terms  on  conditions  rigidly  fixed  at  the 
outset. 

2.  In  large  areas  or  properties  of  Wildwoods  we  commonly 
meet  the  following  three  conditions  affecting  the  choice  of  Silvicul- 
tural  Method: 

a.  There  is  no  net  growth ;  decay  and  growth  balance.     This 
is  not  always  true ;  it  is  more  true  in  our  Hardwoods  and  Hemlock 
of  the  Lake  Region  than  in  the  Pinery ;  it  is  more  true  in  a  large 
area  of  Southern  Pine  than  in  the  Pineries  of  the  Rockies,  etc.    But 
it  is  always  near  enough  true  to  urge  immediate  removal  of  the 
old,  defective  stands,  the  stands  "going  back",  etc.    The  first  demand 
then  is  to  cut  the  property  over  for  old  and  defective  timber  to 
start  or  to  increase  net  growth  on  the  land. 

b.  Logging  in  the  wildwoods  where  all  roads  and  other  im- 
provements must  be  made,  and  generally  also,  must  be  paid  for  out 
of  the  proceeds  of  the  first  cut,  requires  that  large  contiguous  areas 
may  be  logged  together.     But  good  forestry  in  Clear  Cutting  as 
well  as  in  Shelterwood  system  demands  small  cutting  areas.   There 
is  but  one   compromise   and   this   is   the   Selection    Method   where 
enough  is  taken  to  warrant  logging  and  enough  is  left  to  assure 
safetv  and  welfare  of  the  forest. 


100  FOREST  REGULATION 

c.  Our  forests  still  lack  proper  protection  and  will  for  a  long- 
time to  come.  For  this  reason  large  areas  of  reproduction  (1000 
acres  and  more)  of.  Pine  and  other  conifers  in  solid  bodies  are  very 
unsafe  affairs  and  should  be  avoided.  We  may  expect  some  serious 
calamities  in  this  direction. 

Keeping  in  mind  these  three  points,  it  would  seem  clear  that  in 
most  of  our  large  forest  properties  the  aim  should  be  in  the  first 
cutting  over:  To  Leave  a  Forest,  to  let  reproduction  come  in 
slowly,  under  protection  and  in  interrupted  areas,  groups  and 
patches  and  so  avoid  especially  the  great  fire  risks. 

3.  In  districts  where  stumpage  is  now  valuable,  market  and 
transportation  good,  and  growth  satisfactory,  there  is  no  good 
reason  why  more  intensive  work  should  not  be  done.  In  many  areas 
of  this  kind  it  will  be  far  better  to  clean  off  the  old  stand  entirely 
and  restock  by  planting,  where  best  species  and  proper  spacing  can 
be  assured.  Generally  it  may  be  said  that  wherever  stumpage  is 
$10.00  and  over  and  where  inferior  material  can  be  removed  at 
cost  or  at  some  profit,  and  also  where  growth  per  acre  and  year 
may  be  set  at  75  cu.  ft.  of  wood,  it  will  now  pay  to  cut  clear  and 
plant.  These  conditions  exist  today  in  a  large  part  of  the  eastern 
United  States  and  are  rapidly  extending  everywhere. 

c.    Illustrations  from  Different  Forest  Regions. 

The  following  statements  are  not  intended  as  directions  but 
rather  as  illustrations  of  what  is  under  consideration.  In  every 
larger  region  conditions  vary  and  the  most  intensive  as  well  as  the 
most  extensive  systems  are  indicated  in  practically  every  forested 
state  in  the  Union. 

i.  The  Woodlot  of  the  Farm  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United 
States.  Here  the  land  is  usually  fair,  even  good,  it  is  valuable,  a 
large  return  should  therefore  be  demanded.  Labor  is  ample,  market 
of  the  best,  usually  the  farm  home  takes  a  large  part  of  all  that 
grows,  and  requires  this  right  along.  Work  normally  starts  with  a 
mismanaged,  badly  over-cut  tract,  often  grazed,  with  little  repro- 
duction and  poor  growth.  A  first  cutting  over  in  several  years  time 
removes  old  and  defective  trees.  This  should  be  followed  by  plant- 
ing or  seeding  if  necessary  to  start  a  satisfactory  stand.  After  that 


CHOICE   IX    SlI.VMTJ.TrKK  IOI 

the  Selection  method  or  Standard  Coppice  will ' f uriiisfr  gobtl -'results 
in  all  of  our  hardwoods.  In  Conifers  cut  clear  by  strips  and  replant 
at  once  ;  mix  in  few  hardwoods  to  better  the  soil.  Ordinary  coppice 
works  well  in  hardwoods  of  the  East  and  South  but  in  the  States 
west  of  the  Alleghanys  tends  to  poor  dried  out  scruhwoods.  except 
in  moist  situations. 

2.  Spruce  Forests  of  the  Northeast.  These  are  mountain 
woods  varying  from  pure  Spruce  to  hardwoods  with  a  mere  sprink- 
ling of  Spruce.  On  lower  slopes  and  in  valleys,  not  farmed,  (or 
farmed  formerly  and  now  abandoned)  a  milder  climate  produces 
forests  of  hardwood,  Hemlock  and  White  Pine.  The  sites  vary  from 
good  valley  and  bench  lands  and  lower  slopes  with  a  fair  depth  of 
soil,  to  steep  and  high  slopes  with  thin  rocky  land.  The  climate  is 
cold,  winters  long,  snowy,  frosts  late,  summers  cool  and  short; 
precipitation  ample,  specially  dry  years  (fire  danger)  occur  at  inter- 
vals of  TO-2O  years  and  have  led  to  bad  forest  fires.  In  keeping 
with  cold  climate,  growth  is  generally  slow  (except  on  good  valley 
lands),  small  timber  logged  today  is  generally  over  150  years  old; 
cut  per  acre  generally  less  than  10  M.  ft. ;  size  of  timber  rarely  over 
20"  and  over  100  ft.  But  the  ample  humidity  of  climate  of  this 
region  makes  reproduction  easy  and  assured ;  not  only  White  Pine, 
but  also  Spruce  readily  seed  up  abandoned  pasture  lands:  On  higher 
mountains  there  is  a  scrubby  forest,  which  should  never  be  cleared, 
but  held  as  protective  cover.  Market  along  all  railways,  good, 
proximity  to  P>oston  and  New  York  should  make  them  of  the  best. 
But  so  far  transportation  facilities  have  been  deficient,  railway 
construction  being  costly,  only  Spruce  and  Pine  could  be  logged  and 
driven  down  the  various  streams,  while  hardwoods  in  many  places 
have  remained  practically  valueless.  This  is  rapidly  changing.  Log- 
ging is  costly  in  keeping  with  small  timber,  light  cut.  and  bad 
topography.  The  Selection  method  is  best  suited  to  all  upper  slopes 
and  rough  lands  and  should  come  often  enough  (every  15-20  years) 
to  take  out  timber  in  small  quantities,  and  leave  a  fairly  dense  cover 
on  account  of  windfall.  Spruce  should  be  favored,  but  hardwoods 
should  not  be  entirely  cut  out  for  reason  of  soil  and  beauty.  On 
bench  lands,  etc.,  Clear  Cutting  and  planting  of  White  Pine  (and 
Norway  Spruce?)  has  already  proven  a  success. 


102  FOREST  REGULATION 

3.'  Appalachian  Mountain  Region  from  Pennsylvania  South. 
Low  mountain  region,  mild  climate,  at  lower  elevations ;  great 
variety  of  topography  and  soils ;  valleys  settled  to  farms ;  rain  fall 
over  40"  and  steep  slopes  lead  to  much  injury  from  erosion  where 
forest  is  cut  clear,  this  injury  is  especially  bad  in  the  deep  soil 
districts  from  Virginia  southward.  Forests  of  hardwoods,  generally 
mixed  with  hard  Pine,  and  farther  up  with  Hemlock;  at  higher 
altitudes  and  in  north  half  of  district,  White  Pine  on,  north  slopes 
of  West  Virginia,  etc.,  Spruce  forest.  Lumbering  old,  and  forests 
largely  cut  clear  in  north  half,  in  south  half  lumbering  now  at  its 
best,  clear  cutting  the  rule.  Logging  expensive  especially  in  south 
half;  no  snow,  steep  ground ;  much  rocky  land,  long  ridges ;  recruires 
railway;  and  these  are  costly.  Market  excellent,  plenty  of  indus- 
tries;  large  cities  near,  and  matter  chiefly  one  of  transportation. 
Growth  and  reproduction  in  keeping  with  climate,  generally  fair  to 
good,  except  on  very  poor  soils.  Rapid  development  of  this  region, 
excellent  sites  and  proximity  to  great  cities  call  for  intensive 
methods  as  far  as  soil  and  topography  permit.  Wherever  there  is 
great  danger  from  erosion,  and  also  on  the  poor,  rocky  sites  the 
Selection  method  alone  is  justified;  Coppice  in  small  areas  serves 
to  hold  soil  and  furnishes  good  timber  (Chestnut  and  Oak).  On 
easy  slopes,  benches,  etc.,  with  sufficient  soil,  the  system  should  be 
suited  to  species,  and  for  conifers  Clear  Cutting  and  artificial  repro- 
duction, doing  away  with  all  delay  and  uncertainties  is  justified 
unless  insects  should  prove  too  serious  a  menace.  In  this  case  mixed 
forest  in  Selection  method  or  Shelterwood  is  most  efficient. 

4.  Southern  Pinery,  Great  sandy  Plains  with  rich  narrow  river 
bottoms  and  extensive  swamps;  warm  climate,  (cotton  belt)  heavy 
rainfall,  plenty  of  rain  all  through  the  long  growing  season.  Growth 
rapid,  reproduction  easy  and  safe.  Forest  homogeneous  pure  pine 
woods.  Market  and  transportation  good  now  ;  proximity  to  sea  and 
to  large  eastern  cities,  and  ease  of  railway  construction  promise  to 
mike  market  as  good  as  exists  in  any  forest  region.  Considerable 
agricultural  development.  Logging  simple  and  cheap.  Market  and 
Site  call  for  intensive  methods.  Pine  site  generally  now  worth  over 
$20.00  per  acre  to  raise  timber  on  a  3%  basis.  The  sandy  soils  call 
for  Pine  in  pure  forest,  even  age  stands,  and  justify  Clear  Cutting 


CHOICE  OP  METHODS  103 

with  artificial  reproduction,  and  short  Rotations.  Plenty  of  rain 
makes  natural  seeding  in  open  Shelterwood  stands  possible  in  Long- 
leaf  as  well  as  Shortleaf  and  Loblolly,  and  clear  cutting  with  seed- 
ing from  side  will  probably  succeed  better  in  Loblolly  and  Shortleaf 
than  with  any  other  species  and  in  any  other  region  in  the  United 
States. 

River  bottoms  and  swamps  should  be  developed  agriculturally. 

5.  Pinery  of  the  Lake  Region.  A  large  district  of  level 
country,  with  numerous  drivable  streams,  excellent  transportation 
facilities  by  Great  Lakes  and  many  railways.  Region  covered  with 
glacial  drift,  soils  deep,  generally  sand,  or  loams  and  gravels.  Nor- 
way and  White  Pine  on  sands  (Jack  Pine  on  the  poorest),  Hard- 
woods and  Hemlock  on  loams  and  better  sands  of  Wisconsin  and 
eastward.  Swamps  and  lakes  scattered  over  entire  region ;  swamps 
stocked  with  Tamarack,  some  Cedar  and  Spruce.  Winters  cold  and 
snowy,  spring  dry,  growing  season  short,  severe  spring  frosts ; 
specially  dry  seasons  every  8-15  years  have  led  to  great  forest  fires. 
Growth  and  reproduction  fair;  an  18"  White  Pine  produced  in  100 
years  ;  clear  cut  lands  dry  out,  "brush  up"  and  restock  with  difficulty  ; 
Hemlock  does  not  reproduce  at  all  under  these  conditions.  Market 
good  now,  $io-$2O  on  stump  for  Pine,  growing  better  rapidly ;  log- 
ging efficient  and  cheap.  Market  and  Sites  call  for  intensive 
methods.  Except  in  swamps  and  specially  poor  sands  or  rocky-thin- 
soil  lands  Clear  Cutting  with  artificial  reproduction  should  restore 
a  truly  valuable  stand.  In  Hardwoods  the  Selection  system  may  be 
used  as  a  starter,  should  take  out  the  large  and  poor  trees  and  leave 
at  least  half  the  stand  on  the  ground.  On  moist  sites  Shelterwood 
is  practical  in  Maple  and  Beech  woods,  but  will  not  make  the  returns 
which  can  be  secured  by  a  clear  cut  with  artificial  reproduction  in 
which  Spruce  and  White  Pine  replace  the  greater  part  of  the  hard- 
woods. Tamarack  and  Cedar  in  the  swamps  restock  readily  by 
seeding  from  the  side,  but  in  larger  Cedar  stands  a  Selection  method 
is  preferable  as  it  prevents  rank  growth  of  swamp  "brush."  Jack 
Pine  with  Clear  Cutting  and  seeding  from  sides,  in  narrow  strips 
should  be  kept  until  these  lands  have  recovered  from  the  effects  of 
burning,  and  after  that  Norway  Pine  (also  Scotch  Pine)  should 
replace  Jack  Pine. 


104  FORFST  REGULATION 

6.  Western  Yellow  Pine  Districts.  These  Western  Pineries 
occupy  the  dry,  warm,  lower  slopes  of  the  Rockies,  the  east  side  of 
Sierras  and  Cascades  and  the  dryer  slopes  of  the  west  side  of  the 
ranges  from  Middle  Oregon  South.  Topography  and  soil  vary 
within  wide  limits ;  the  soil,  being  dry,  is  generally  fertile  and  it  is 
the  warmth  and  dryness  of  climate  (and  soil)  which  give  these 
sites  to  Pine.  Hard-baking  "adobe"'  soils  in  Arizona ;  coarse  granite 
sands  and  gravels  on  the  east  side  and  limestone  soils  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Black  Hills  and  pumice  sands  in  parts  of  the  Cascades 
indicate  variety  in  this  direction.  Forest  varies  from  open,  park- 
like  stands  of  pure  pine  woods  to  rather  dense  and  brushy  mixed 
stands  of  Yellow  Pine  and  Red  Fir,  with  Balsam  and  Larch  in 
Idaho,  or  Yellow  Pine,  Sugar  Pine,  Balsam  and  Cedar  in  California. 
Tendency,  as  in  all  hard  pines,  to  even  age  stands.  Reproduction 
varies  chiefly  with  moisture  conditions  and  is  precarious  in  most 
parts  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  easy  on  the  granite  in  the  Black 
Hills,  much  more  difficult  on  the  limestone,  etc.  An  18"  tree 
requires  over  150  years  in  the  drier  parts  of  district  (Arizona),  only 
about  100  years  in  the  moister  portions  (parts  of  Oregon  and 
California).  Topography  varies  from  perfectly  level  and  easy 
rolling  plateau  country  in  Arizona,  South  Dakota  to  steepest  moun- 
tain lands.  Market  just  developing,  transportation  to  long  distance 
markets  (Chicago,  Kansas  City,  etc.)  costly.  Logging  very  variable, 
easy  on  plateau,  difficult  in  mountains  where  it  calls  for  chutes  or 
slides,  etc. ;  high  cost  of  labor  enters  heavily.  Protection  against 
fire  a  serious  problem,  summers  generally  dry ;  specially  dry  seasons 
recur  at  intervals  10-20  years:  great  fires  1902,  1910,  et.  Barkbeetle 
a  serious  menace  to  the  "all  old''  stands. 

So  far  several  methods  have  been  tried.  The  lumberman  has 
generally  cut  clear,  taking  all  he  could  use.  The  Government  has 
tried  Clear  Cutting  with  seed  trees  or  seeding  from  side ;  and  various 
modifications  of  this  method  in  the  direction  of  ordinary  Selection 
method.  Generally  this  latter  method  is  best : 

a.  To   avoid   exposure   of  large   areas   to   sun   and  wind   and 
thereby  rendering  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  the  natural  reproduc- 
tion desired. 

b.  To  avoid  large  contiguous  bodies  of  young  growth   until 
some  later  period  when  fire  protection  is  ample. 


CHOICE  IN    PINERY  105 

c.  To  enable  present  development  where  the  market  is  unable 
to   use   everything  and   also   to   work   over   small,   detached   areas. 

d.  To  encourage  early  removal  of  large  masses  of  defective 
and  dying  stuff. 

Since  dryness  of  climate  is  everywhere  the  serious  difficulty  in 
Western  Yellow  Pine  forests,  introduction  and  care  of  Balsam. 
Cedar,  Red  Fir  and  Hardwoods  which  tend  to  give  more  density  to 
forest  and  thereby  better  protection  from  drying  winds  is  advisable 
in  spite  of  the  lesser  value  of  these  species  as  timber. 

Where  artificial  reproduction  is  necessary  to  re-stock  larger 
areas  of  clear  cut  lands  it  is  best  done  by  planting  of  good  stock, 
spaced  not  less  than  ten  feet,  and  planted  with  sufficient  care  to 
assure  success.  Rodents  are  a  serious  obstacle  to  natural  and  arti- 
ficial reproduction  of  Western  Yellow  Pine. 

/.  Lodge  Pole  Pinery.  These  forests  are  of  importance  in  the 
higher  slopes  of  the  Rockies  from  Colorado  north,  and  also  in  the 
northern  Cascades,  as  well  as  out-lying  mountains  like  the  Big 
Horns.  The  Sites  are  inferior ;  a  cold  climate  and  short  growing- 
season  make  slow  growth.  It  requires  generally  over  100  years  to 
make  a  12"  tree,  and  150  years  to  grow  a  crop  of  tie  timber.  The 
sites  vary  in  topography  and  soil ;  large  areas  are  plateau  country 
with  ample  depth  and  quality  of  soil ;  the  altitude  assures  reasonable 
moisture  conditions  and  encourages  reproduction.  This  takes  place 
readily  on  clear  cut  and  even  burned-over  lands,  less  readily  within 
the  stands.  Exceptionally  dry  seasons  and  prevalence  of  electric 
storms  have  led  to  great  conflagrations  in  Lodgepole ;  large  areas 
are  bare,  and  generally  stands  of  pine  are  even  aged.  At  the  lower 
limits  Lodgepole  merges  into  Yellow  Pine,  and  then  is  often  mixed 
with  Red  Fir;  above,  it  grades  into  the  Alpine  forests  of  Spruce 
in  the  Rockies,  or  Balsam,  Hemlock  and  White  Bark  Pine  in  the 
Pacific  Ranges. 

The  market  for  Lodgepole  is  generally  a  local  one ;  it  is,  there- 
fore, developed  only  in  a  few  places  located  near  large  mining  enter- 
prises, Montana,  Colorado,  Utah,  or  convenient  to  railways  (tie 
timber)  as  in  the  Big  Horns  and  along  the  V.  P.  Ry.  in  Wyoming 
and  N.  P.  Ry.  in  Montana.  Logging  here  is  regular  mountain 
work,  as  a  rule,  calls  for  chutes,  flumes  and  other  special  devices 


IO6  FOREST  REO.ur.ATJON 

Slow  growth,  size  and  quality  of  timber,  remote  location,  little 
market,  costly  logging,  difficulties  of  labor  situation  in  such  remote 
districts,  then  also  the  importance  of  this  Pinery  as  "protection 
forest",  all  call  for  Selection  method,  at  least  in  the  beginning  work. 
Leave  a  forest. 

After  this  pinery  is  sufficiently  developed  as  to  Utilization  and 
Protection,  so  that  small  bodies  of  timber  may  be  removed  econom- 
ically, the  Clear  Cutting  system  may  be  employed,  as  better  suited  to 
this  decidedly  intolerant  species.  So  far  Clear  Cutting  with  seed 
trees  in  various  modifications  has  been  employed.  Of  late  this 
method  has  been  replaced,  at  least  in  part,  by  a  Selection  method 
with  more  or  less  compromise  to  enable  profitable  utilization. 

Artificial  re-stocking  of  these  lands  is  hindered  especially  by 
rodents,  and  has  not  been  found  an  easy  matter.  If  it  were  not  for 
these  animals,  an  old  time  sowing  of  cones  should  succeed  on 
Lodgepole  burns. 

8.  Hemlock  and  Balsam  Forest  on  the  West  Slopes  of  the  Cas- 
cades, notably  in  Washington.     Large  mountain  slopes,  with  fairly 
deep  coarse  soils,  heavy  precipitation;  deep  snowfall;  remaikatlc 
snow   melts   leading   to   destructive   floods.      Good    growth,    read}' 
reproduction  and  tolerant  species  all  combine  to  make  these  idea! 
stands  for  valuable  Selection  forest.     Danger  from  erosion  alone 
calls  for  a  method  which  keeps  a  constant  cover  on  these  slopes. 
Abundant  waterpower  and  forest  make  a  good  combination ;  and 
proximity  to  ocean  will  soon  make  market  conditions  such  that  the 
best  care  of  the  forest  will  be  justified.    . 

9.  Forest   of   Red   Fir   in   Washington   and   Oregon.      Large 
bodies  of  giant  timber,  "all  old",  often  broken  stands  where  Red 
Fir,  Hemlock,   Spruce,   Cedar  and   Balsam   occur  in   all   forms  of 
mixture  as  to  species,  age,  and  condition ;  also  large  areas  of  young 
stands  from  10-100  years  on  former  burns.     Sites  vary  as  to  top- 
ography and  soil,  from  level  to  the  roughest,  from  deep  soil  to  rock 
masses,  but  over  the  entire  area  a  mild  humid  climate  assures  rapid 
growth   and   excellent   reproduction.      On   good   ground   a   growth 
more  than  twice  that  observed  in  Michigan  forests  is  nothing  un- 
common.    The  real  home  of  Red  Fir,  which  grows  to  great  size 
(200  ft.)  and  age  (400  years)  and  produces  yields  of  over  100  M.  ft. 


CHOICE  oi<  METHOD  107 

per  acre  and  is  exceptionally  free  from  insects  and  disease,  and  at 
the  same  time  makes  material  most  in  demand  by  the  market.  Choice 
of  Silvicultural  method  is  dominated  by  preference  for  this  species. 
Since  Hemlock  is  far  more  tolerant  and  readily  takes  possession  of 
the  ground  even  under  a  good  stand  of  Red  Fir,  Selection  or 
Shelterwood  are  not  well  suited  here,  unless  Hemlock  is  wanted  as 
mixture.  With  a  prospect  of  excellent  market  within  twenty-five 
years  proximity  to  sea.  excellent  growth  and  easy  reproduction, 
there  is  no  reason  why  Clear  Cutting  with  planting  should  not  be 
recommended. 

The  foregoing  sketches  will  indicate  the  view  point  and  some 
of  the  conditions  which  enter  into  the  matter  of  choice  of  Silvicul- 
tural Method  to  be  employed  in  any  given  case.  It  is  clear  that  no 
general  lines  can  be  laid  down  which  may  be  applied  without  modi- 
fication, and  every  case  needs  special  study. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  stated  that  large  areas  of  cut-over 
lands,  usually  burned  over  repeatedly  and  deteriorated  through  soil 
wash,  exposure  to  sun  and  wind,  and  now  occupied  by  useless  brush, 
should  be  planted  without  delay.  The  enterprise  is  a  gigantic  one; 
it  is  peculiar  in  that  it  does  not  lend  itself  readily  to  ordinary  private 
enterprise.  A  man  of  small  means  cannot  \vait  fifty  years  for  the 
crop ;  the  men  of  large  means  do  not  want  to  wait.  The  local  town- 
ship and  even  the  local  county  is  too  poor  to  do  this  work.  So  it 
remains  for  the  State  and  Nation.  And  particularly  to  the  State 
should  fall  this  task,  and  all  lands  not  well  suited  to  agriculture 
should  be  bought  up  and  promptly  converted  into  State  Forests  by 
planting.  Such  an  enterprise  would  be  most  profitable  for  any 
State  to  undertake,  it  would  assure  local  supplies  of  timber,  stimu- 
late wood-working  industries,  regulate  water  flow,  help  the  appear- 
ance of  the  district  and  would  make  millions  of  acres  produce  the 
only  crop  which  is  an  assured  success  upon  these  lands.  The 
attitude  of  indifference  in  this  connection  will  cost  vast  sums  in  the 
future.  To  get  some  measure  of  what  is  needed  here  it  may  be  said 
that  a  State  like  Pennsylvania  could  well  own  20%  of  its  land  area 
in  State  Forest,  and  that  it  should  spend  at  least  $1.00  per  acre  in 
care  of  this  and  before  long  (in  the  life  of  a  state)  would  have  a 
net  income  of  $3.00  per  acre  from  these  forests. 


108  FOREST  REGULATION 

E.    ROTATION. 

In  Central  Europe  timber  is  cut  at  an  age  varying  from  twelve 
years  in  Coppice  to  200  years  in  Oak  for  timber.  Where  regular 
timber  (saw  timber,  etc.)  is  raised  in  Germany  it  is  generally  cut 
at  the  age  of : 

Pine  and  Spruce  80-100  years,  (60-80  years  in  private  forests). 
Balsam  over  TOO  years. 

Beech  100-120  years. 

Oak  150-200  years. 

Rotation  has  been  shortened  during  the  past  100  years  es- 
pecially in  Conifers.  Reason  for  this  lies  chiefly  in  market  and  in 
the  introduction  of  rational  methods  of  forest  valuation.  German 
market  for  saw  timber  today  prefers  timber  io"-i5"  d.  b.  h.  to 
larger  or  smaller,  and  the  best  sizes  are  u"-i3",  requiring  about 
70-90  years  in  dense  forest. 

The  matter  of  Rotation  is  of  great  importance  in  Germany 
today  in  spite  of  the  old  settled  conditions  of  forest  and  market.  It 
forms  one  of  the  important  topics  in  forestry  literature,  and  the 
Bavarian  government  has  recently  established  a  special  commission 
to  ascertain  proper  Rotation  for  different  forests  species  and  sites. 

In  the  United  States  this  matter  is  rapidly  coming  to  the  fore- 
ground. The  preliminary  regulation  for  National  forests  requires 
establishment  of  Rotation.  Recent  studies  of  White  Pine,  Loblolly, 
etc.,  attempt  to  work  out  the  age  when  it  is  most  profitable  to  cut 
the  crops  of  timber  to  be  established.* 

The  Kinds  of  Rotation  usually  distinguished  are : 

a.    Technical  Rotation. 

\Vhich  allows  the  timber  to  grow  to  a  certain  size,  needed  for 
a  particular  use,  such  as  pulp  wood,  fence  posts,  railway  ties,  tele- 
phone poles  and  piling,  saw  timber,  etc.  This  condition  of  size 
dominates  our  present  market  and  through  this  the  utilization  of 
timber. 

*  See  Bull,  u   (new  series)   1914,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 
Sterrett :    "Forest  Management  of  Loblolly  Pine." 


ROTATION  TN  FORESTRY  lOQ 

1.  In  Loblolly  or  in  Lodge  Pole  enterprises  for  hewn  railway 
ties  the  diameters  preferred  are  12",  13",  and  14".     If  this  is  the 
only  use  for  which  the  timber  is  grown,  and  we  get  as  many  ties 
from  the  14"  tree  as  from  the  17",  it  is  obviously  useless  to  allow 
the  tree  to  grow  to  16"  and  waste  time  and  use  of  land  for  perhaps 
twenty  years  (Lodge  Pole)  or  more.     This  case,  especially  in  slow 
growing  Lodge  Pole,  illustrates  the  importance  of  careful  determin- 
ation of  Rotation.     If  a  stand  of  Lodgepole  produces  practically  as 
many  satisfactory  ties  at   150  years  as  at  180  years,  to  leave  this 
material   the   extra   thirty   years   would   be   a   loss   which,   in   large 
operations,  would  run  into  a  considerable  sum.    On  the  other  hand, 
if  150  years  are  required  to  produce  tie  timber,  then  it  is  useless  to 
discuss  shorter  Rotations  unless  it  is  reasonably  certain  that  other 
uses  may  be  expected  to  change  the  market. 

This  also  illustrates  the  uncertainty  in  this  determination  of 
Rotation,  especially  in  new  countries  where  market  is  rapidly  chang- 
ing its  requirements  and  prices. 

2.  Generally  the  upper  limit  is  less  rigidly  fixed,  larger  timber 
means  a  greater  number  of  uses,  but  the  lower  limit  is  fixed. 

In  spite  of  all  the  changes  of  the  past  TOO  years,  a  few  funda- 
mental facts  remain  valid  today.  The  consideration  of  a  few 
principal  uses  may  illustrate  this : 

a.  Fuel  wood,  though  used  in  enormous  quantities  must  be 
cheap   and   have   local    market ;   it   competes    with    coal,    is    almost 
excluded  from  many  districts,  does  not  pay  for  long  distance  trans- 
portation  (unless  by  water)  ;  can  be  supplied  from  thinnings,  etc. 
Even  fifty  years  ago  it  was  a  factor  in  Forest  Regulation,  called  for 
a   Rotation   of   maximum   volume,   and   was   regularly   transported 
especially   by    water   to   larger   towns    of    Europe.      Today   it    has 
generally  disappeared  from  consideration  of  the  rotation. 

b.  Pulp  wood  requires  reasonable  proximity  of,  usually,  large 
and  costly  mills ;  it  favors  conifers  and  of  these  the  Spruce.     So  far 
it  pays  well,  competes  with  lumber  in  purchase  of  stumpage.     The 
use  of  other  species  is 'growing,  and  like  fuel  wood,  pulp  wood  may 
largely  be  cut  from  thinnings  in  the  future. 

So  far  Pulp  wood  has  not  attained  an  importance  to  control 
Rotations,  but  has  afrected  the  practice  of  thinning,  and  indirectly 
it  is  leading  in  the  direction  of  shorter  rotations.  In  the  United 


110  FOREST  REGULATION 

States  pulpwood  may  soon  call  for  special  forests  with  a  practice 
and  Rotation  calculated  to  produce  largest  volume  of  well  cleaned 
material.  A  sixty,  year  Rotation  for  planted  Spruce  is  indicated  in 
the  Northeast.  With  exhaustion  of  cheap  cooperage  and  veneer 
material  and  with  increase  of  cheap  power  by  stream  development, 
pulp  board  will  increase  in  importance  and  be  able  to  utilize  cheap 
woods  and  refuse-materials  in  large  quantities. 

c.  Railway  ties,  telephone  poles,  piling,  wagon  stock,  and  other 
similar  timber  requiring  sizes  over  10"  d.  b.  h.  compete  with  saw 
timber  for  stumpage  except  that  species  like  Cypress,  Cedar,  Hard- 
woods  can   be   used,   not   commonly   desired    for   lumber   in   these 
smaller  sizes.     Generally  io"d.  b.  h.  inside  bark  is  the  lower  limit 
and  whatever  time  is  required  to  produce  this  size  will  remain  the 
minimum  rotation  for  this  important  class  of  materials.     The  fact 
that  rough,  limby  and  crooked  material  can  be  used  here  will  affect 
the  rotation  but  little,  for  an  adequate  yield  per  acre  demands  a  fair 
cover  of  trees  in  which  light  is  fully  utilized  and  growth  therefore 
slower  than  seen  in  shade  trees  and  park  stands.     -Ties  cut  in  the 
United  States  today  vary  widely  in  age.     For  Lodgepole  over  150 
years;  same  for  White  Cedar  (Michigan,  etc.)  ;  over  sixty  years  for 
Oak,  only  30-40  for  Loblolly. 

d.  Ordinary  Saw  timber  prefers  conifers  to  hardwoods,   at 
present  in  ratio  of  three  to  one ;  demands  fairly  clean  and  straight 
material,  prefers  even  grained  and  slow  grown  stuff  and  does  not 
go  below  10"  d.  b.  h.  inside  bark.    The  few  special  cases  (box  boards 
with  us  to.  8")   do  not  alter  this  materially.     Europe  has  probably 
reached  the  smallest  practicable  limit  in  its  present  market  demands. 
Smaller  sizes  mean  increased  waste  in  sawing,  poorer  product,  arid 
they  also  mean  waste  in  the  forest  by  taking  stuff  at  a  period  of 
rapid  growth. 

If  this  is  true  then,  the  time  to  grow  a  tree  12"  d.  b.  h.  outside 
bark  is  the  minimum  Rotation  in  saw  timber,  and  this  size  must  be 
produced  in  good  form,  fairly  clean  of  limbs,  and  preferably  with  an 
even  and  fine  grain.  Saw  timber  cut  in  the  United  States  today 
gives  but  little  information  on  this  point.  Generally  it  is  larger  and 
much  older  than  is  needed.  The  giant  stuff  of  Redwood  and  Red 
Fir,  Sitka  Spruce  and  Cedar  on  Coast  is  generally  over  250  years 
old,  much  of  it  over  300;  the  same  is  true  of  Cypress  in  the  South  ; 


CHOICE  OF  ROTATION  III 

Sugar  Pine,  Western  Yellow  Pine,  Hemlock  and  Longleaf  as  cut  for 
lumber  today  are  generally  over  200  years  old ;  White  Pine,  Spruce, 
Lodgepole  and  Cedar,  also  Oak,  Yellow  Poplar,  Maple  and  Beech, 
over  150  years  old,  and  the  rest  of  saw  material  generally  over  TOO 
years. 

Using  12"  d.  b.  h.  as  minimum  size,  measurements  thus  far 
made  would  indicate  for  ordinary  sites  a  technical  Rotation : 

Of  forty  years  and  less  (down  to  twenty-five  years)  for  Cotton- 
wood,  Red  Gum,  Eucalyptus,  Red  Wood  from  sprout,  also  for 
Maple,  Elm  and  other  timber  on  good  soils  like  river  bottoms,  etc. 

Of  40-60  years  for: 

'  White  Ash,  Red  Oak,  Chestnut,  Elm,  Basswood,  Cuban  and 
Loblolly  Pine,  and  the  following  Pacific  Coast  trees,  Red  Fir,  Hem- 
lock, Spruce.  Sugar  and  Western  Yellow  Pine. 

Of  60-80  years  for : 

Norway  Pine,  Eastern  and  Western  White  Pine,  Longleaf  and 
Shortleaf  Pines  of  the  South,  Cypress,  Red  Fir  of  the  Rockies, 
Hickory,  and  Yellow  Poplar. 

Of  80-100  years  for: 

White  Oaks  and  Western  Balsams  and  Cedars  in  the  mountains. 

Of  IOO-T2O  years  for: 

Maple,  Beech,  Yellow  Birch  of  Great  Lakes  Region  and  East, 
Eastern  Hemlock. 

Of  120-150  years  for: 

Red  Spruce,  Tamarack,  Lodge  Pole  and  Engelman  Spruce  of 
the  Rockies. 

These  figures  are  mere  suggestions,  and  would  be  modified 
within  wide  limits  by  the  site  covered,  as  well  as  methods  used  in 
care  of  the  forest,  planting,  thinning,  etc. 

e.  Furniture  lumber  and  Tight  Cooperage  call  for  hardwoods 
in  larger  sizes  with  fully  matured  heart  wood  where  such  decides 
desirable  color  and  other  qualities.  Here  18"  d.  b.  h.  may  be  set  as 
minimum.  Tn  central  Europe,  White  Oak  is  grown  to  an  age  of 
160-200  years  and  even  older.  Tt  is  doubtful  if  Rotations  of  over 
150  years  will  be  provided  for  in  the  future,  since  combination  of 
good  soil  and  climate  and  relatively  small  yield  tend  to  make  the 
raising  of  this  class  of  timber  unprofitable.  In  addition  rapid  exten- 
sion of  commerce  with  the  tropics  may  make  it  unnecessary  to 
provide  for  much  of  this  kind  of  timber  in  the  future. 


112 


FOREST  REGULATION 


b.    Rotation  for  Largest  Volume  or  Yield  of  wood 
per  acre  and  year. 

This  usually  refers  to  "cordwood  and  better"  (about  3"  thick 
and  over),  but  in  many  localities  abroad,  includes  even  faggot 
material.  As  stated  before,  this  Rotation  was  entirely  proper  when 
certain  forests  had  to  supply  a  large  population  with  fuel,  so  that 
fuel  had  to  be  shipped  into  the  districts.  Today  such  a  Rotation  is 
the  exception,  but  may  again  come  into  use  with  development  of  the 
Pulp  industry  and  better  facilities  for  marketing  and  shipping- 
materials  demanded  in  the  slack  barrel,  box  board  and  other 
industries. 

Rotation  for  largest  volume  in  Germany  and  for  fair  to  good 
site  (site  II)  is  about  as  follows: 

Pine    60  years 

Spruce 90-100  years 

Beech  and  Balsam 110-120  years 

This  fits  in  very  nicely  with  the  technical  Rotation  for  these  species. 

c.    Rotation  of  Largest  Yearly  Income. 

The  following  figures  will  illustrate  what  is  meant  here :  One 
acre  of  Spruce  on  Site  II  in  Germany  may  present,  the  following- 
conditions  : 


Age 

Yield 

Expenses 

Net  Income. 

Se.   or 

of 
Stand. 

final  and 
thinnings. 

during  the 
r  years. 

Total. 

Average 
per  year. 

Rental  Val. 
of  land. 

Years. 

$  per  acre. 

$  per  acre. 

$  per  acre. 

$  per  acre 

$  per  acre. 

40 

211 

48 

163 

4.00 

47 

60 

654 

66 

588 

9.80 

98 

80 

1212 

84 

1129 

14.00 

105 

100 

I7II 

IO2 

1609 

16.00 

9i 

no 

IpIQ 

III 

1808 

16.40 

83 

120 

208/ 

120 

1967 

16.30 

75 

This  table  indicates  that  if  the  stand  is  cut  at  forty  years  the 
net  income  is  $163,  an  average  of  $4.00  per  acre  and  year;  if  cut  at 
no  total  net  income  is  $1808  or  $16.40  per  year  and  acre.  After 


CHOICE  OF  ROTATION  113 

this  the  total  net  income  gees  to  $1967  at  120  years  but  the  average 
per  year  begins  to  decrease. 

The  table  also  indicates  that  the  owner  receives  highest  average 
rental  per  acre  from  his  land  if  he  cuts  it  at  eighty  years  or  thirty 
years  before  highest  average  yearly  income  occurs. 

In  this  calculation  for  Greatest  Net  Income  per  acre  and  year, 
the  assumption  is  that  we  normally  have  a  forest  and  not  merely 
bare  land;  that  this  forest  is  reasonably  regular  so  that  a  yearly 
income  is  produced.  If  then  Rotation  is  eighty  years,  for  instance, 
we  could  take  an  eighty-acre  sample  of  this  forest  and  get  from  this 
eighty  acres  each  year  : 

One  acre  of  ripe  timber. 

Several  acres  of  thinnings  (these  are  made  about  every  ten 
years  in  good  forests  abroad)  and  we  would  have  as  expenses: 

One  acre  to  plant  and 

Eighty  acres  to  protect,  pay  taxes  on,  etc. 

Putting  this  in  a  formula  we  have : 

Yr  -f  Ta  -!-  Tb,  etc.  —  C  —  re 
Average  Net  Income  per  acre  =  — 

where  Yr  —  Stumpage  Value  or  net  Yield  of  one  acre  of  ripe  tim- 
ber, here  eighty  years  old. 

Ta  =  Value  of  Thinnings  made  when  the  stand  is  a  years 
old,  etc. 

C  =  Cost  of  planting  one  acre, 
re  =  Value  of  taxes,  protection,  administration,  etc.,  i.  e., 

of  yearly  expenses  for  r  acres. 
Using  the  above  table  we  have : 

12 12 — 84 


Average  Net  Income  per  acre  on  eighty  year  rotation 


80 


d.    Rotation  for  Highest  Rent  per  Acre  of  Land. 

This  is  also  called  "'Financial  Rotation''  and  may  also  be  called 
"Rotation  for  highest  Rate  of  Interest  on  Capital."  The  assumption 
here  is  that  bare  land  is  the  real  capital  and  that  by  using  it  to  raise 
timber  this  land  is  made  to  pay  a  rental,  and  the  object  is,  in  using 
this  Rotation,  to  secure  best  net  rental  per  acre.  The  calculation, 
:then,  starts  out  with  an  acre  of  bare  land  and  inquires  into  the 


ii4  FOREST  REGULATION 

amount  of  material  and  values  we  can  produce  from  this  acre  and 
the  cost  of  doing  it. 

The  calculation  usually  employed  is  based  on  the  following 
general  formula  of  the  present  value  of  a  series  of  rentals  coming 
at  regular  intervals,  and  continuing  indefinitely  as  does  rent  from 
land. 

"D 

— -  Rental  Value  or  Income  Value  of  the  Land  where 

i  .opn  -  -  i 

R  is  the  rental,  i.  e.,  the  net  income  which  can  be  produced  every 
forty,  sixty,  etc.,  years,  i.  e.,  every  Rotation. 

p  is  the  rate  of  interest. 

n  is  the  number  of  years  to  grow  the  crop,  here  then  the  age  at 
which  the  stand  is  cut,  i.  e.,  the  Rotation. 

To  illustrate: 

Tf  cut  at  sixty  years,  and  the  total  net  income  at  sixty  years 
will  be  $500;  and  if  1.03°°  =  5.89,  the  interest  rate  being  3%,  the 
calculation  then  is  500/5.89 — i  =  500/4.89  =  $102  approximately. 
According  to  calculation,  this  acre  of  land  brings  enough  rental  to 
make  it  worth  about  $102  if  used  for  the  purpose  of  growing  the 
special  kind  of  timber  and  cutting  it  at  the  age  of  sixty  years,  pro- 
viding we  are  satisfied  with  3%  on  the  money  spent  in  planting  and 
all  other  expenses.1 

A  great  deal  of  controversy  has  taken  place  over  the  last  two 
forms  of  Rotation,  and  German  foresters  are  still  largely  divided  into 
two  camps  on  this  question.  The  tendency  is  toward  a  full  recog- 
nition of  the  value  of  financial  Rotation  with  a  compromise  justify- 
ing a  larger  income  with  a  smaller  interest  rate  or  net  rental  on  the 

1  The  proper  formula  to  employ  in  this  calculation  is  the  formula  for 
Se,  or  the  Income  Value,  or  Expectation  Value  of  the  Soil.  This  formula  in 
its  usual  form  reads: 

Yr  4-  Ta  (i.op^-a)  -f  Tb  (i.opr-t>)  —  C  (iopO 

Se  = —  E 

i.opr  — •  i 

where  Se  is  Expectation  Value  or  Income  Value  of  the  Soil,  or  land  per  acre. 
Yr  is  Srumpage  Value  of  one  acre  of  timber  r  years  old.    (Ripe  timber.) 
Ta  is  thinning  made  when  the  stand  is  a  years  old. 
Tb,  thinning  when  stand  is  b  3rears  old. 

C  is  cost  of  planting  or  establishing  the  young  stand  of  timber  on  one  acre 
E,  yearly  expenses,  protection,  taxes,  administration  capitalized  at  p%. 
p  is  interest  rate  used,  usually  3%. 


FINANCIAL    ROTATION  115 

land.  An  illustration  from  the  management  of  a  farm  will  explain 
the  attitude  of  those  opposed  to  a  rigid  adherence  to  this  financial 
Rotation :  A  does  little  work,  has  poor  buildings,  little  stock,  small 
investment.  He  also  has  a  poor  crop,  but  this  small  crop  forms  a 
large  per  cent  of  interest  on  his  investment. 

B  employs  plenty  of  help,  has  good  buildings,  lots  of  live  stock, 
large  investment.  He  has  a  large  crop  but  this  large  crop  is  but  a 
small  per  cent  on  his  investment.  According  to  census  figures  a 
farm  in  Alabama  pays  a  higher  rate  of  interest  on  investment  than 
that  of  Illinois,  but  the  latter  has  easily  twice  as  much  income  per 
acre  per  year.  Generally  B  with  his  well  tended  farm  is  considered 
the  right  farmer  and  not  A. 

The  new  Bavarian  Instructions  expressly  state  that  rotation 
should  be  so  chosen  that  demands  of  the  home  markets  are  best 
supplied,  and  a  fair  income  is  secured. 

The  latest  Prussian  Instructions  do  not  discuss  this  point,  evi- 
dently a  refusal  to  commit  the  State  to  the  principle  of  a  financial 
Rotation,  for  which  there  has  been  a  great  deal  of  clamor. 

e.    Physical  Rotation. 

Besides  the  foregoing  four  kinds  of  Rotations  authors  generally 
mention  a  fifth  one,  Physical  Rotation.  This  is  little  explained  as  a 
rule.  Judeich  says  it  is  a  Rotation  where  timber  is  cut  at  a  time 
when  easiest  reproduced,  bears  plenty  of  seed,  or  sprouts  well  (in 
coppice),  or  else  it  is  natural  Rotation  where  timber  is  allowed  to  go 
as  long  as  it  will  live  naturally. 

Neither  of  these  conceptions  are  very  helpful.  More  useful  is 
a  consideration  of  the  relation  of  Rotation  and  up-keep  of  fertility 
of  the  land.  This  is  important  especially  in  forests  of  Pine  and 
other  intolerant  species  stocked  on  poor  sandy  lands.  Here  the 
stand  opens  up  after  it  gets  to  be  50-80  years  old,  and  allows  wind 
and  sun  to  injure  the  soil  by  destruction  of  humus  and  by  drying. 

Even  on  fair  soils  as  in  Oak  woods  such  soil-deterioration  takes 
place  and  must  be  met  either  by  shortening  Rotation  or  by  under- 
planting,  or  other  silvicultural  means. 

Generally,  then.  Rotation  is  suited  to  market,  to  rate  of  growth, 
and  therefore  to  Site,  Species,  and  treatment.  But  in  all  forests 


n6  FOREST  REGULATION 

many  stands  never  grow  as  is  expcccd  and  hoped,  and  must  be  cut 
younger  or  left  to  grow  older  than  is  prescribed  by  the  Rotation. 
For  these  and  other  reasons  some  authors  have  suggested  that  Rota- 
tion is  an  unimportant  conception,  and  that  it  is  useless  to  try  to 
decide  on  a  definite  Rotation.  Even  among  foresters  of  experience 
the  opinion  is  not  rare  that  Rotation  is  set  by  guess  or  feeling.  The 
fallacy  of  all  this  is  evident  from  the  foregoing.  The  table  of  net 
incomes  pictures  faithfully  what  actually  occurs  in  the  forest  regard" 
less  of  the  figures  used,  and  if  it  makes  land  \vorth  25%  more  by 
cutting  at  eighty  years  it  is  certainly  poor  policy  to  let  the  stuff  go 
to  an  age  of  1 10  years  and  take  a  smaller  per  cent  interest  besides 
much  longer  risk.  That  European  Governments  consider  Rotation 
of  great  importance  has  been  stated.  In  addition  it  may  be  said  that 
Regulation  of  any  forest  demands  establishment  of  a  definite  Rota- 
tion, just  as  much  as  any  big  enterprise  requires  definite  estimates. 
Organization  of  large  railway  and  other  transportation  systems  is 
usually  based,  of  necessity,  on  assumptions  which  are  probable  but 
never  exact  or  certain. 

Experience  of  the  last  100  years  in  Europe  proves  conclusively 
that  growth  in  the  forest  is  sufficiently  regular  to  be  estimated  to 
any  degree  of  accuracy  here  demanded.  But  it  also  indicates  that 
there  is  a  limit  to  this  degree  of  accuracy  and  that  there  is.  no  need 
of  hair-splitting,  but  that  a  range  of  5-10  years  must  be  conceded 
even  in  Rotations  of  60-100  years. 

Generally,  longer  Rotations  demand  larger  capital  in  form  of 
timber,  involve  more  risk  for  any  one  stand,  tend  to  reduce  rate  of 
interest  on  the  capital,  but  make  for  larger  income,  per  year  and 
produce  a  material  of  better  price  and  a  much  larger  market,  and 
usually  are  better  for  maintaining  the  site. 

f.    Natural  Rotation. 

In  wild  woods  is  the  average  life  of  the  Species.  In  a  pure 
stand  of  intolerant  species  such  as  Lodge  Pole,  Longleaf,  Loblolly 
or  Norway  Pine,  Tamarack,  etc.,  the  old  timber,  even  though  stands 
open  up  considerably,  prevents  reproduction  effectively.  When  once 
the  stand  breaks  it  is  readily  hurt  by  storm  and  the  great  number  of 
defective,  dying  and  dead  trees  also  invite  insect  trouble  and  fire. 
Accordingly  these  pure  stands  of  hard  pine  and  other  intolerants  are 


XATITRAI,   ROTATION  117 

apt  to  break  down  fast,  and  leave  the  field  practically  free  for  young 
growth  which  now  gets  plenty  of  light  to  start.  This  new  stand  is 
practically  even  aged,  trees  develop  and  grow  old  together  and  the 
story  of  decline  and  replacement  by  a  new  stand  repeats  itself.  With 
these  species  the  pure  even  age  stand  is  rather  rule  than  exception  in 
our  wild  woods. 

In  mixed  stands  of  hardwoods  the  case  is  entirely  different: 
Normally  the  site  (soil,  etc.)  is  much  better;  the  several  species 
differ  in  tolerance,  growth,  reproduction  and  they  vary  in  longevity 
and  resistance  to  injury. .  Here  the  stand  does  not  go  down  together 
(unless  it  is  a  case  of  windfall),  is  constantly  reproducing,  every 
opening  is  filled,  it  rarely  forms  even  aged  stands  over  large  areas 
and  even  when  it  does  (after  accidental  destruction)  reproduction 
sets  in  long  before  the  old  stand  really  breaks.  We  have  the  Selec- 
tion Method  practiced  by  nature.  It  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  on 
any  one  township  of  hardwoods  in  the  Ohio  Valley  in  virgin  state 
the  total  amount  of  timber  remained  fairly  constant;  growth  and 
decay  balanced,  old,  middle  aged  and  young  stuff,  i.  e.,  the  Age 
Classes  were  properly  represented ;  rotation  varied  for  different 
species,  but  it  was  always  the  average  life  of  the  species.  In  this 
way  these  virgin,  mixed  woods  presented  a  certain  regularity  com- 
parable to  that  attempted  by  the  forester.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
property  stocked  with  pure  stands  of  even  aged  pine,  etc.,  may  or 
may  not  be  regular.  In  fact  there  are  areas  of  Lodge  Pole  Pine  of 
over  100,000  acres  in  which  certain  age  classes  are  almost  wanting, 
a  fact  which  needs  consideration  in  planning  for  a  steady  supply  of 
timber  and  income. 

g.    Choice  of  Rotation  in  United  States. 

Generally,  Rotation  should  be  chosen  no  longer  than  is  neces- 
sary to  produce  desired  material,  a  good  income  from  the  land,  with 
full  assurance  that  the  fertility  of  the  land  is  not  impaired. 

On  good  sites,  with  good  growth  and  high  stumpage  calculation 
of  net  rental  on  a  reasonable  interest  rate  should  never  be  omitted. 
In  such  calculation  the?  following  facts  should  have  due  con- 
sideration : 

i.  Sizes  demanded  by  the  Market  are  growing  smaller,  but  will 
probably  not  go  beyond  present  European  limits. 


1 1 8  F< )  R  K ST   R KG  \  1 1.. . \  T I O  X 

2.  A  good  practice  of  thinning  can  reduce  Rotation  by  many 
years. 

3.  Planting  of  strong  plants,  4-5  years  old  and  proper  spacing 
can  in  many  places  save  ten  years  on  Rotation. 

In  our  wild  woods  and  where  a  beginning  is  made  by  the  selec- 
tion method,  the  natural  Rotation  is  apt  to  be  misleading.  In  certain 
Lodge  Pole  forests  a  technical  Rotation  is  indicated  by  the  time  it 
takes  to  grow  a  railway  tie;  say  150  years.  If  this  forest  is  to  be 
regulated,  as  to  yearly  cut,  by  Hundeshagen  (or  Von  Mantel's  modi- 
fication of  this)  it  becomes  necessary  to  set  a  definite  Rotation.  In 
deciding  this  Rotation,  the  temptation  is  to  use  the  age  of  "mature 
stuff"  and  employ  natural  Rotation  as  criterion,  largely  on  assump- 
tion that  a  shorter  Rotation  would  furnish  a  much  smaller  volume. 
If  the  cut  is  12  M.  ft.  per  acre  and  mature  stuff  largely  200-250 
years  old,  the  assumption  usually  is  that  it  takes  about  200  years 
to  produce  this  volume  of  12  M.  ft.  This  is  an  error,  and  it  will  be 
found,  in  most  cases,  that  volume  (not  only  in  tie. timber)  is  fully  as 
great,  -say,  at  150  years,  as  at  any  time  later,  and  that,  therefore,  this 
Rotation  of  150  years  not  only  furnishes  the  proper  size,  but  fully 
as  large  a  volume.* 

*  That  a  stand  of  timber  does  not  add  volume  indefinitely,  or  even  to 
great  age  is  self  evident  and  is  well  shown  by  European  Tables.  And  no 
amount  of  care  in  thinning,  etc.,  is  able  to  change  materially  this  fundamental 
fact.  In  wild  woods  pure  even  age  stands  reach  the  point  of  maximum 
volume,  apparently  much  earlier  than  in  forests  receiving  proper  care. 

•In  Oak,  site  I  (as  per  Schwappach)  yield  of  stuff  3"  and  better  of  the 
"main  stand"  is,  at  140  years  about  7000  cubic  feet,  and  at  the  age  of  2CO 
years  only  8500,  making  only  1500  in  60  years  in  spite  of  all  care!  In  Scotch 
Pine  yield  per  acre  does  not  materially  increase  after  120  years,  even  on 
good  sites  and  with  best  of  care.  Schwappach's  tables  give  for  the  "main 
stand"  at  100  years  a'bout  6000  cubic  feet  and  for  120,  6300,  and  only  6400 
at  140.  These  figures  are  for  fully  stocked  stands  and  must,  in  this  respect, 
be  regarded  the  exception,  for  it  is  here  where  Silviculture  finds  its  hardest 
problem,  to  keep  the  stand  intact.  A  century  of  storm,  hail,  ice,  insect  and 
disease  affects  the  forester's  efforts,  and  German  forestry  today  has  not  yet 
succeeded  to  hold  its  stands  better  than  about  85-9x3%  stocked,  even  up  to 
IOQ  years,  and  longer  Rotation's  would  certainly  reduce  these  percents  rapidly. 
In  wild  woods  dense  stands  of  the  sapling  and  pole  age  introduce  great  and 
lasting  struggles,  ordinary  and  normal  competition  helps  to  injure  the  forest, 
and  there  is  no  agency  to  correct  this  mischief.  Results  are  evident,  the  fully 
stocked  "forty"  in  wild  woods  is  rare,  particularly  in  pure  stands  of  in- 
tolerants. 


OF  CUT  119 

F.    REGULATION  OF  THE  CUT  IN  AMOUNT  AND 
IN  LOCATION. 

German  :   "Eftragsregehing1"  including  the  "Hiebsordnung." 

I.    General  Considerations. 

Since  Forest  Regulation  aims  to  make  a  forest  property  into  a 
regular  business  with  yearly  income  proportional  to  investment,  and 
since  timber  ordinarily  requires  fifty  and  more  years  to  grow,  cut- 
ting of  the  timber  must  be  adapted  or  regulated  to  fit  into  the 
general  plan. 

1.  The  farmer  harvests  all  that  grows  on  an  acre  of  land  each 
year,  the  forester  must  let  growth  on  any  one  acre  accumulate  for 
fifty  and  more  years.     The   farmer  harvests  growth  from  all  his 
lands  each  year,  and  his  yearly  harvest  is  exactly  what  grows  in  that 
particular  year.    The  forester,  to  have  a  yearly  cut  and  income,  must 
regulate  his  business,- and  in  any  case  he  does  not  cut  what  grew  in 
that  particular  year,  but  an  amount  equivalent  to  the  year's  growth, 
in  fact  he  cuts  what  grew  during  the  last  fifty  or  one  hundred  years 
on  a  part  of  his  land.     In  this  way  the  forester's  crops  average  up 
and  yearly  income  is  not  fluctuating  to  such  a  degree  as  it  is  on  the 
farm. 

2.  To  be  able  to  cut  a  crop  of  ripe  or  eighty-year  old  timber 
each  year,  the  forester  of  a  20,000  acre  property  must  have  areas 
of  old.  middle  age  and  young  timber  at  all  times.    In  this  particular 
case  he  would  really  need  250  acres  of  80  year  old,  250  acres  of  79 
year  old,  etc.,  all  the  way  to  250  acres  of  one  year  old  stuff.  This 
perfect  regularity  is  not  possible ;  fire,  storm,  snow,  frost,  insects  and 
disease,  all  help  to  disturb  regularity  even  if  it  were  possible  to 
establish. 

3.  In  practice  the  forester  is  satisfied  if  he  can  get  an  approxi- 
mation to  this,  such  that  he  has,  in  the  above  case,  5000  acres  of 
stuff  between  60  and  80  years,  5000  acres  40-60  years,  etc. ;  i.  e., 
that  each  twenty  year  Age  Class,  have  about  an  equal  area  of  land. 
To  bring  about  this  regularity  of  Age  Classes  in  the  forest  is  one  of 
the  chief  objects  of  regulating  the  cut. 

4.  This  regularity,  when  once  accomplished,  not  only  assures 
a  yearly  cut  and  income,  but  it  does  more.     Assuming  proper  care 


i2o  FORKST  REGULATION 

in  Silviculture,  this  regularity  provides  the  following  fundamentals 
of  good  forest  business. 

a.  Yearly  cut  of  about  equal  volume. 

b.  Yearly  cut  of  about  the  same  age,  size  and  quality  of  timber, 
and  hence  a  yearly  income  of  about  the  same  amount. 

c.  Growth  and  income  is  secured  on  a  capital  no  larger  than  is 
necessary,  and  therefore  this  regularity  assures  the  largest  per  cent 
of  interest  on  the  capital. 

d.  Best  growth   under  given  conditions  of   site,   species  and 
rotation. 

e.  Greatest  degree  of  safety  from  fire  and  other  dangers,  since 
the  forest  is  never  made  up  entirely  of  young,  or  of  old  stuff. 

In  short  the  forest  is  in  a  properly  regulated  or  "normal"  con- 
dition. 

5.  From  the  above  it  follows  that  if  the  forester  "over  cuts", 
i.  e.,  cuts  much  more  than  the  proper  area  or  amount  of  timber,  he 
cuts  into  the  "capital"  and  must  make  up  by  saving,  later  on.    If  he 
"undercuts",  i.  e.,  leaves  a  lot  of  ripe  stuff  on  the  ground,  he  reduces 
growth  and  income,  for  old  stuff  does  not  grow  as  fast  as  young 
timber.     For  any  given  place  or  forest  there  is  a  certain  Rotation 
which  is  better  than  a  longer  or  shorter  one,  and  once  this  is  decided 
upon,  Regulation  of  the  cut  is  bound  by  it. 

The  lumberman  normally  overcuts,  and  thereby  cuts  capital  and 
growth ;  the  farmer  in  his  woodlot  often  overcuts  in  one  place  and 
undercuts  in  another;  Bavarian  State  forests  for  years  have  been 
undercut,  and  income  kept  unnecessarily  low.  Overcutting  a  forest 
tends  to  devastation  and  neglect.  As  soon  as  yearly  income  fails  or 
becomes  too  small,  the  owner  loses  interest,  he  "retrenches",  i.  e.,  he 
neglects,  and  the  mischief  grows  at  geometric  ratio.  Overcut  also 
hurts  market  either  by  over-production  or  by  failure  of  regular 
supply.  Experience  in  the  United  States  as  well  as  abroad  is  the 
same  on  this  point. 

Regulation  of  the  cut,  then,  should  prevent  overcut  as  well  as 
undercut  in  the  forest. 

6.  Keeping  in  mind  the  changes  in  market,  bad  seasons,  fire, 
insects  and  other  enemies,  and  then  also  mistakes  of  the  forester 
which  disturb  regularity  of  reproduction,  growth  and  development 
of  the  manv  stands  of  timber  in  a  forest,  it  is  evident  that  this  res;u- 


DISTRIBUTION   OF  CUT  121 

lation  of  the  cut  is  never  more  than  a  good  approximation,  and  also 
that  it  is  never  finished  but  needs  revision  from  time  to  time  in 
order  that  regulation  fit  the  changed  conditions  of  the  forest  due  to 
growth,  cut  and  injury. 

7.  Where  Clear  Cutting,  or  Shelterwood  systems  are  used,  and 
also  where,  as  in  Western  Yellow  Pine  and  Lodge  Pole,  the  Selec- 
tion method  and  clear  cutting  are  combined  in  various  ways,  in  fact 
wherever  an  area  of  land  is  cleared  and  the  old  stand  replaced  by  a 
young,  even  aged  (or  approximately  even  aged)  stand,  there  enters 
a  new  factor  in  this  matter  of  regulation : 

Order,  Direction  and  Distribution  of  the  Cut,  ("Hiebsord- 
nung,  Hiebsfolge")  determining  Distribution  of  Age  Classes,  i.  e., 
Distribution  of  old  and  young  stands  in  the  forest. 

8.  This  proper  distribution  of  stands  of  young  stuff,  middle 
age  and  old  timber  is  demanded  by  Silviculture  and  by  Protection 
and  on  large  properties  also  by  local  market.    To  illustrate :  Assume 
a  forest  of  20,000  acres,  one  solid  block  of  level  lands,  all  Spruce, 
Rotation  eighty  years.    Also  that  it  is  possible  to  cut  250  acres  each 
year  and  replant.     If  this  cutting  were  done  in  strips  running  north 
and  south,  there  would  be  a  strip  of  250  acres  each  year,  and  in 
twenty  years  there  would  be  a  solid  body  of  5000  acres  all  covered 
with  young  stands  from  1-20  years  old,  most  of  them  dense  brush, 
highly  inflamable,  and  completely  ruined  if  fire  ever  got  in.    Danger 
from  insects  and  fungi  need  not  be  mentioned. 

Again  suppose  an  attempt  were  made  to  cut  the  stands  from 
West  to  East.  A  solid  line,  six  miles  long,  of  large  timber  would  be 
left  without  protection  and,  in  case  of  Spruce,  surely  be  thrown 
by  the  wind,  the  mischief  going  right  ahead  of  cutting,  making  miles 
perhaps,  during  a  specially  bad  season.  Suppose  this  same  area 
were  entirely  cut  over  and  cutting  ready  to  begin  along  the  East 
line.  If  now  it  should  happen  that  certain  tracts  in  the  middle  of 
this  area  were  injured  by  fire,  or  insects  and  had  to  be  cut  at  once, 
such  cutting  would  make  a  break  in  the  cover  and  set  the  mischief 
of  wind  fall  going.  But  these  accidents  and  many  others  must  be 
met  in  every  property  and  during  every  rotation. 

Again  in  mountain  country  every  valley  has  its  own  peculiari- 
ties as  to  wind  and  storm,  and  these  need  to  be  considered,  the  aim 
being  always  to  "cut  against  the  wind",  and  also  to  avoid  having  to 


122  FOREST  REGULATION* 

move    cut    timber   through    areas    recently    restocked    with    young 
growth. 

Then  also  it  has  long  been  found  that  it  is  much  easier  to  repro- 
duce a  stand  of  timber,  whether  by  natural  or  artificial  reproduction, 
if  the  area  to  be  covered  is  small  and  surrounded  by  forest.  Since 
this  is  largely  a  matter  of  drying  winds,  it  is  most  important  in  dry 
and  windy  situations  and  districts  (Lake  Region,  Rocky  Mountains, 
etc.).  This  matter  has  become  a  principle  in  Silviculture.  Good 
Silviculture  calls  for  small  cutting  areas,  and  these  properly  re- 
stocked before  cut  of  timber  proceeds. 

9.  To  bring  this  about,  one  of  the  principal  efforts  in  Regula- 
tion is  to  direct  the  cut  of  the  forest  in  such  sequence  or  order  as 
to  enable  the  forester  to  have : 

a.  Small  Cutting  Areas. 

b.  Many  separate  tracts  at  any  one  time  where  ripe  timber  can 
be  removed;  i.  e.,  many  points  of  attack. 

c.  No  large  area  covered  with  timber  of  one  age  and  in  such 
condition  that  he  can  not  cut  any  portion  without  serious  danger  to 
the  rest,  or  surrounding  timber. 

d.  To  have   the  cut  proceed  against  the  wind  and   so  avoid 
danger  from  windfall. 

e.  Avoid  large  areas  of  young  stands  (especially  important  in 
conifers  on  account  of  fire). 

10.  To  enable  the  forester  to  plan  and  cut  timber  in  proper  order 
and  direction,  to  enable  him  to  get  at  every  stand  whenever  it  is  in 
need  of  cutting  and  reproduction,  is   fundamental  in  all  methods 
where  the  forest  cover  is  entirely  removed  at  times. 

IT.  Cutting  Series  (Germ.  Hiebszug).  To  do  this,  however, 
the  forest  needs  a  proper  'division  beyond  mere  land-division  into 
lots  described  before.  It  is  necessary  to  divide  the  forest  into  a 
number  of  small  independent  parts,  each  separated  from  its  neigh- 
bors by  a  broad  line  and  each  surrounded  by  a  satisfactory  forest 
border.  These  independent  parts  are  the  Cutting  Series. 

12.  Centuries  ago  when  there  was  either  Coppice,  Standard 
Coppice  or  Selection  forest  there  was  no  demand  for  this  division 
into  Cutting  Series,  but  with  development,  especially  of  the  Clear 
Cut  and  plant  method,  it  became  a  silvicultural  necessity. 


CUTTING   SERIES 


1-23 


At  first,  especially  on  level  ground  and  easy  slopes,  these  Cut- 
ting" Series  were  made  large,  often  of  five  and  more  lots,  and  there 
was  devised  by  Reuss  a  regular  form  of  arrangement  for  them.  The 
older  Cutting  Series  were  so  large  that  they  required  the  greater 
part  of,  or  the  entire  Rotation  to  cut  over. 


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FIGURE  3.  Division  into  Lots  and  Cutting  Series,  showing  the  old  or 
''Normal"  form  of  Distribution  of  old  and  young  stands  in  the  Forest.  Lots 
1-5  in  the  upper  tier,  form  one  cutting  series  for  a  100  year  rotation,  the  plan 
being  to  cut  one  lot  every  20  years.  The  cutting  series  is  surrounded  by  a 
broader  line  (30  feet)  so  that  a  forest  border  can  form,  and  thus  it  becomes 
quite  independent  of  the  surrounding  woods.  Schematic,  and  conditions  as 
they  should  be  at  begin  of  rotation,  in  this  case,  once  every  100  years. 


In  the  diagram.  Figs.  3  and  4,  illustrating  the  old  and  also  the 
Reuss  pattern  the  Cutting  Series  in  Fig.  3  has  five  compartments. 
If  the  timber  is  worked  on  a  loo-year  Rotation,  and  has  five  Age 
Classes,  a  cut  is  made  every  ten  years  to  give  reproduction  a  chance. 
Then  the  forester  cuts  }/2  of  No.  5,  and  plants ;  in  ten  years  he  cuts 
second  half  of  Xo.  5,  etc.  In'  this  way  the  Cutting  Series  is  just 


I24 


FOREST  REGULATION 


covered  during  one  Rotation,  and  every  Cutting  Series  on  the  prop- 
erty is  planned  to  be  cut  over  in  this  same  sequence  and  at  the 
same  rate. 

These  old  time  Cutting  Series  proved  too  large  and  have  b«en 
generally  abandoned.  Today  a  Cutting  Series  is  commonly  made  up 
of  two  lots,  often  of  a  single  lot,  and  is  cut  over  in  ten  or  twenty 
years,  and  normally  in  much  less  than  the  full  Rotation. 


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£ 

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2 

3 

S 

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t 

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3 

FIGURE  4.  Reuss'  Pattern  of  Division  and  Distribution  of  old  and  young 
Stands.  This  separates  the  oldest,  and  the  youngest  better  than  is  done  in 
Figure  3.  In  any  case  the  danger  line  is  the  line  between  the  oldest  and 
youngest  stands.  Schematic  and  conditions  as  they  may  be  found  at  any 
time.  Only  two  lots  in  each  Cutting  Series ;  this  is  optional. 


Mayr  in  his  Waldbau  recommends  going  a  step  further  and 
making  the  Sub-Lot  or  even  a  smaller  area  the  Cutting  Series  to 
enable  a  better  use  of  the  land ;  his  idea  being  that  each  stand  should 
be  pure.  i.  e.,  of  one  species,  but  that  the  stands  should  be  small,  and 
different  kinds  of  these  small  stands  mixed  to  produce  a  mixed 
forest  of  pure  stands. 


125 

13-    The  advantage  of  breaking  up  the  forest  into  a  large  num- 
ber of  independent  parts  is  evident  from  the  following  case: 
Area  of  forest :  20,000  acres. 
Rotation  :   80  years,  hence  4  Age  Classes. 
Method  :   Clear  Cut  and  planting. 
Lots  average  80  acres  .'..  250  lots. 


-Treva'x\\uq 

*    \        \          ^ 


FIGURE  5.  Direction  of  Cutting  in  High  Mountain  Country.  The  dan- 
gerous winds  come  down  the  Valleys.  In  lot  I  and  also  in  No.  2  a  storm- 
point  is  produced  by  the  position  of  the  Valley  on  W.  side.  This  also  makes 
it  desirable  to  cut  down-valley  in  lower  part  of  No.  4,  but  not  in  No.  3. 
Arrows  point  in  the  direction  in  which  to  cut. 


i26  FOREST  REGULATION 

Cutting  Series  of  two  lots  each  .'.  125,  of  160  acres  each. 

Yearly  cut  (by  area)  :    250  acres. 

Cut  during  one  "period"  or  20  years:  5000  acres  or  about  31 
Cutting  vSeries. 

Cutting  area  40  acres,  with  5-year  rest  between  cuts  at  any  one 
place. 

Having  over  thirty  different  Cutting  Series  or  independent 
parts,  all  of  them  with  ripe  or  sufficiently  ripe  timber,  ready  to  cut, 
the  forester  has  ample  choice,  he  can  cut  at  thirty  different  points, 
and  if  at  any  one  point  reproduction  is  not  succeeding,  if  insects  are 
destroying  his  plantations  in  any  place,  and  it  is  necessary  to  wait,  he 
is  in  position  to  do  so.  In  short  this  division  into  Cutting  Series 
gives  many  points  of  attack,  it  makes  the  entire  enterprise  "flexible", 
enables  the  forester  to  cut  any  stand  when  it  is  necessary,  without 
hurting  the  rest  of  the  timber,  and  enables  him  to  give  each  stand 
the  care  it  needs. 

In  our  beginnings  in  the  United  States  it  may  seem  too  early  to 
speak  of  such  refinement  of  methods  as  the  Cutting  Series  indicates. 
But  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  next  fifty  years  will  demonstrate  the 
dangers  and  losses  which  are  sure  to  come  with  extensive  unbroken 
areas  of  pure  growing  stands  of  pine,  etc.  The  Cutting  Series  is  a 
silvicultnral;.  necessity,  and  its  development  is  neither  difficult  nor 
costly. 

14.  It  is  evident,  from  the  foregoing  that  the  Cutting  Series  is 
not  always  a  permanent  division  right  from  the  start,  but,  like  the 
Sub-Lot,  or  stand  division,  it  may  for  many  years  be  in  a  temporary 
condition  of  development.     As  to  its  size,  the  present  tendency  is 
toward  making  each  Lot  a  Cutting  Series  and  getting  the  greatest 
possible  use  out  of  the  system  of  lines  maintained,  as  well  as  the 
smallest  possible  Cutting  Series.* 

15.  Working  Section.     German:    "Betriebs  Klasse".     Where 
a  forest  property  is  of  ordinary  size,   (25000  acres  or  less)  and  is 
made  up  of  one  type  of  timber,  all  pine,  all  mixed  hardwoods,  etc. 
Regulation  of  the  cut  usually  applies  to  the  entire  property. 


*  See  Martin,  "Zeitschrift  fiir  Forst  und  Jagdwesen,"  1905,  p.  86,  on 
Forest  Division  in  Austria. 

Also.  Wagner.  <-Raumliche  Ordnung  im  Walde,"  which  treats  entirely 
of  this  silvicultural  division  of  the  forest. 


WORKING   SECTIONS 


127 


Where  the  property  is  made  up  of  two  or  more,  radically  dif- 
ferent types  of  woods  so  that  each  of  these  types  requires  special 
treatment,  then  the  forest  is  divided  into  two  or  more  Working  Sec- 
tions. The  following  illustrates  this : 

Area :    20,000  acres. 

Location  :   Michigan  Pinery  district. 

Types:  Hardwood  and  Hemlock 35%  or  7,000  acres 

Pinery  proper 50%  or  10,000  acres 

Tamarack  and  Cedar  Swamp.  .  .  .15%  or  3,000  acres 


FIGURE  6.  Township  of  Typical  Lake  Region  Pinery  Lands  with  three 
types  of  lands  and  three  permanent  types  of  forest ;  Pinery  lands  with  pure 
and  mixed  stands  of  Pine ;  Hardwood  and  Hemlock  forests  on  slightly 
heavier  soils ;  and  swamp  lands  stocked  with  Tamarack,  Cedar,  mixed  with 
Spruce,  Pine,  and  Hardwoods  in  better  drained  spots.  These  three  types  call 
for  different  species,  silvicultural  methods,  and  rotation  and  therefore  demand 
three  separate  Plans,  each  type  forming  one  Working  Section. 

From  the  diagram,  Fig.  6,  it  is  apparent  that  the  swamp  forests 
are  in  several  pieces  of  irregular  shape,  following  drainage  lines. 
The  plan  of  Silviculture  here  proposes  to  treat  Pine  by  the  Clear 
Cut  and  plant  method,  Hardwoods  as  Selection  forest,  and  swamp 


128  FOREST  REGULATION 

timber  by  cutting  clear  in  strips  and  depending  on  natural  repro- 
duction. 

In  this  way  the  three  types  of  woods,  on  three  very  different 
kinds  of  land  or  sites,  may  be  expected  to  differ  always.  Regulation 
of  the  cut  is  made  much  simpler,  the  plan  much  clearer,  by  making 
a  separate  plan  of  Regulation  for  each  of  these  three  types,  and 
treating  each  type  as  a  separate  Working  Section,  just  as  if  it  were 
a  separate  property. 

In  larger  properties,  and  in  properties  made  up  of  several 
separate  tracts,  miles  apart  and  especially  in  mountain  districts 
where  different  watersheds  have  different  local  or  general  markets, 
this  matter  of  distance,  separation  and  market,  alone  justifies  divi- 
sion of  the  forest  into  Working  Sections.  A  forest  like  the  Big 
Horn,  over  sixty  miles  long  and  twenty  miles  wide,  supplies  settle- 
ments many  miles  apart.  In  this  case  each  settlement  or  local  market 
requires  a  steady  supply  of  timber  and  the  forests  of  each  of  the 
larger  stream  basins  may  well  be  made  into  an  independent  Work- 
ing Section,  with  its  own  plan  of  Regulation  and  its  own  series  of 
Age  Classes,  or  young  and  old  stands  and  its  own  continuous  supply 
of  timber. 

From  the  above  it  is  clear  that  a  Working  Section  is  a  part  of  a 
forest  property  having  its  own  Plan  of  Regulation  of  the  cut,  series 
of  Age  Classes,  and  sustained  yearly  cut. 

Up  to  sixty  years  ago  the  great  importance  of  local  market  as 
compared  with  distant,  large  city  markets,  was  so  great  that  each 
Working  Section,  and  certainly  each  Forester's  District  ("Revier" 
of  the  Germans)  was  expected  to  furnish  strictly  the  same  amount  of 
timber,  year  by  year.  With  extension  of  railways,  local  market  lost 
in  importance  and  large  forests  depend  almost  entirely  on  distant 
markets.  In  such  cases  an  equal  cut  each  year  from  each  forest  or 
Working  Section  is  no  longer  so  necessary,  and  there  is  considerable 
agitation  abroad  to  do  away  entirely  with  this  requirement  of  a  sus- 
tained yearly  cut  even  for  each  district  or  "Revier".  While,  perhaps, 
permissible  in  the  case  of  State  or  National  forests  and  for  large 
forest  properties,  yet  its  advisability  is  doubtful.  The  State  forest 
which  will  be  cut  over  regardless  of  future  regularity  of  supply  and 
left  for  twenty-five  years  without  any  timber  cut  and  income,  will 
not  fare  well  in  allotment  of  appropriations. 


JUCGU PARITY  IN  WILD  WOODS  12*9 

16.  Where  Regulation  of  the  cut  and  orderly  work  begins  in 
woods  the  following  is  accomplished : 

a.  Decay  is  replaced  by  harvest  or  cut  of  ripe  timber,  and  decay 
is  therefore   reduced  to  an   insignificant  amount,   the   unavoidable 
defect. 

b.  Natural  Rotation  is  reduced  by  many  years,  and  changed  to 
a  business  rotation. 

c.  The  amount  of  timber,  the  "Growing  Stock''  is  usually  re- 
duced.    In  many  cases  this  is  not  true,  for  the  growing  stock  in 
wild  woods  is  not  always  large,  due  to  defective  and  useless  stuff 
.and  unstocked  ground. 

d.  The  condition  of  equilibrium  where  growth  and  decay  bal- 
ance changes  to  a  condition  of  net  growth. 

e.  This   net  growth   is   improved  by   good   silviculture   which 
eliminates  weeds,  and  keeps  all  lands  stocked  with  most  productive 
species. 

f.  Fertility  of  the  land  is  usually  reduced,  at  least  in  time.     In 
the  United  States  fires  in  the  pineries  and  mountains  have  done  this 
to  a  serious  degree. 

17.  Natural  Regularity  in  Wild  Woods.    In  wild  woods,  too, 
there  is  a  certain  degree  of  regularity,  comparable  to  that  sought  by 
the   forester.     This  is  greater  in  mixed  hardwoods  than  in  pure 
conifers,  as  pointed  out  under  "rotation",  especially  those  of  intoler- 
ants  like  hard  pine,  Tamarack,  etc. 

In  mixed  hardwoods  in  Southern  Michigan  it  is  probable  that 
even  on  a  single  township  of  virgin  forest  the  following  conditions 
were  maintained : 

a.  Rotation  equal  to  average  life  of  the  trees  of  each  species, 
hence  varies  with  composition  and  is  never  uniform  for  entire  stand. 

b.  Age  classes  generally  well  mixed  on  every  forty ;  all  age 
classes   represented ;  all-old  and  even-aged  stands  of  any  size  the 
exception. 

c.  Growth  only  fairly  good,  and  not  good  in  keeping  with  the 
excellent  sites ;  too  much  over-mature,  crippled,  defective,  spread- 
crown  stuff;  then  also  a  great  deal  of  poor  stuff  and  brush,  (Blue 
Beech,  Hornbeam,  etc.) 


130  KOREST  REGULATION 

d.  Growth  offset  by  decay,  the  forest  in  a  condition  of  equili- 
brium (just  as  in  a  well  regulated  condition).     For  this  reason  no 
net  growth  on  the  entire  area. 

e.  Growing  stock  quite  large  but  not  in  keeping  with  the  long 
(natural)  rotation  and  excellent  site.     From  measurements  made  it 
is  clear  that  on  areas  of  .300  acres  and  more  the  growing  stock  up  to 
200  years  old  was  frequently  much  less  than  could  be  produced  by 
healthy  stands  half  that  age. 

In  forests  of  Lodge  Pole,  Western  Yellow  Pine,  Norway  Pine, 
Tamarack,  Longleaf  Pine,  where  even  aged  stands  prevail  the  condi- 
tions on  a  property,  even  of  50,000  acres  do  not  "even  up",  and  we 
may  and  commonly  do  have : 

a.  Rotation,  quite  uniform,  and  equal  to  average  life  of  the 
tree,  over  200  years. 

b.  Age  classes  on  separate  areas,  not  generally  mixed,  with 
some  classes  wanting.     These,  according  to  studies  thus  far  made 
most  commonly  the  middle  sizes  or  large  poles,    (mere  accident). 
Classes  prevailing  are  mature  or  old  stands,  so  much  so  that  the 
statement  has  been  made  that  the  forest  is  made  up  of  all  old,  i.  e., 
even  age  mature   stands,   which,   of   course   is   not   true   for   large 
properties. 

c.  Growth  over  large  areas  often  very  small,  due  to  dry,  poor 
or  cold  sites,  to  prevalence  of  old  broken  stands  and  large  per  cent 
of  bare  ground. 

d.  Growth  and  decay  do  not  balance  even  on  large  tracts ;  in 
some  cases  decay  over  balances  growth,  while  in  others  considerable 
net  growth  exists,  and  only  a  complete  study  determines  the  true 
status. 

e.  Growing  stock  rarely  large,  commonly  smaller  than  a  pro- 
perly stocked  and  regulated  forest  would  have  at  half  the  natural 
rotation. 

In  forests  of  tolerants,  such  as  Spruce,  Hemlock  and  Balsam 
the  conditions  resemble  more  those  stated  for  mixed  hardwoods. 
But  in  keeping  with  the  simple  composition  (one  species  often)  the 
condition  is  intermediate.  In  all  cases  some  reproduction  sets  in  as 
soon  as  the  stand  begins  to  open  or  break,  but  quite  commonly  it 
leads  to  rather  even  aged,  more  than  many-aged  stands  and  in  this 
respect  approaches  the  condition  of  pure  stands  of  pine. 


MirniODS  OF  REGULATION  131 

On  most  of  the  large  properties  several  types  of  forest  are 
represented.  In  the  Great  Lakes  Region  pinery  there  is  rarely  an 
entire  township  without  some  swamp  forests  and  hardwoods  or 
hardwood  and  pine  mixed  stands.  Naturally  each  of  these  presents 
its  own  regularities  of  rotation,  age  classes,  etc.,  and  needs  to  be 
considered  separately.  ^ 


II.    Methods  of  Regulation  of  the  Cut. 

A.    General  Consideration  and  Classification. 

1.  Plan  of  Regulation  of  the  Cut  involves  two  distinct  tasks: 

a.  Regulation  for  Regularity  of  Age  Classes,  and  with  this  of 
Regularity  in  Amount  of  timber  cut,  i.  e.,  for  a  forest  in  which  there 
is  always  a  proper  amour)*"  of  young,  middle  age  and  old  timber,  in 
which,  therefore,  the  different  age  classes,  0-20,  20-40,  40-60,  etc., 
year  old  stuff  occupy  about  equal  (or  equivalent)  areas  of  land,  and 
supply  a  yearly  cut  of  about  the  same  Volume  and  Value. 

b.  Regulation  for  Proper  Distribution  of  Age  Classes  in  the 
Forest  (Hiebsordnung,  of  the  German)  i.  e.,  for  a  forest  in  which 
stands  of  young  stuff,  poles,  and  older  timber  are  not  in  large,  un- 
wieldly  bodies,  made  up  of  stuff  of  about  the  same  age,  but  are  in 
small  stands  regularly  mixed,  judiciously  arranged  to  enable  good 
Silviculture,  effective  Protection,  and  convenient  Utilization.    In  the 
Selection  forest  mixture  of  Age  classes  is  by  smallest  possible  areas 
and  represents  really  the  greatest  refinement  in  this  direction. 

2.  Where  forestry  is  once  well  under  way  and  where  even  age 
stands  are  to  be  grown  on  large  properties,  the  second  of  these  tasks, 
proper  Distribution  of   stands   is  more   important,   and   practically 
reduces   the   first,   Regulation    for   Age   Classes   to   a   very    simple 
operation. 

Regulation  for  a  Proper  Distribution  of  Age  Classes  depends  on 
a  suitable  division  of  the  forest  into  permanent  Lots  and  into  Cut- 
ting Series,  and  once  the  forest  is  properly  divided  and  the  Cutting 
Series  developed,  further  Regulation  of  the  Cut  is  largely  assured. 
But  this  Regulation  for  Proper  Distribution  of  Age. Classes  must 
be  worked  out  for  each  forest  right  on  the  ground.  The  book  and 


132  FOREST  REGULATION 

school  can  do  little  more  than  give  a  few  principles,  to  guide  in  the 
work.  It  needs  study  of  the  forest,  and  years  of  observation  and 
experience  with  species  and  site.  For  this  reason  the  subject  is  dealt 
with  briefly  in  the  textbooks  on  Regulation,  is  almost  lost  sight  of 
in  some  of  them,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  is  just  in  this  phase  of 
the  work  where  knowledge,  experience  and  capacity  are  most 
needed. 

3.  Regulation  for  Regularity  in  Age  Classes  as  stated  above, 
works  for  sustained  yearly  cut  of  about  equal  amount  and  value,  for 
best  growth  possible  under  given  conditions  of  Site,  Species,  Silvi- 
culture and  Rotation,  and  for  a  Growing  Stock  or  amount  of  grow- 
ing timber  on  the  land,  no  greater  than  is  necessary  to  secure  growth 
and  income.     It  prevents  Overcut  and  Undercut. 

It  is  particularly  at  this  last  point,  the  prevention  of  Overcut  and 
Undercut  that  this  Regulation  begins  on  new  or  wild  woods  property 
because  the  first  question  asked,  when  there  is  once  market  for  the 
timber,  is :  how  much  can  we  cut  on  this  property  without  over- 
cutting  ? 

4.  From  the  nature  of  a  forest  property  it  is  clear  that  there 
are  really  only  two  ways  of  regulating  the  cut  of  timber :  by  Area 
or  by  Volume.     If  a  forester  has  a  property  of  20,000  acres  and 
works  on  a  ico  year  rotation,  he  can: 

a.  Cut  an  Area  of  200  acres  per  year  and  cover  the  property 
every  100  years ;  or  he  can 

b.  Cut  an  Amount  or  Volume  of  timber  which  he  believes  or 
estimates  to  be  equal  to  the  amount  which  grows  on  his  property, 
say  15,000  cords. 

5.  If  faithfully  persisted  in  and  carefully  revised  every  ten  or 
twenty  years,  and  if  Silviculture  and  Protection  are  attended  to, 
either  of  the  two  plans  will  regulate  this  forest.     If  he  regulates  by 
Volume,  he  must  begin  somewhere  and  cut  a  sufficient  area  to  get 
the  Volume  estimated  to  be  right,  and  he  must  do  this  year  after 
year.     After  going-  over  the  property  once  or  twice,  he  will  almost 
certainly  drift  into  a  method,  cutting  over  each  year  the  area  he  cut 
during  one  year  on  his  former  round ;  in  other  words,  a  Regulation 
by  Volume  is  practically  certain  to  change  into  a  Regulation  by 
Area,  which  as  Cotta  correctly  foresaw,  over  a  century  ago,  is  the 
final  in  all  Forest  Regulation. 


REGULATION  OF  CUT  133 

6.  In  practice  the  two  Methods  have  often  been  combined,  and 
in  Classification  of  these  Methods  three  forms  are  usually  spoken  of : 

Regulation  by  Area,  by  Volume,  and  by  Combination  of  Area 
and  Volume.  To  be  exact,  however,  Regulation  in  these  Combined 
cases  is  a  Regulation  by  Area  with  Volume  as  a  check.  In  the  above 
case  the  forester  may  decide  on  cutting  over  about  200  acres  and 
also  decide  that  he  does  not  want  to  cut  over  15,000  cords.  If  then 
he  cuts  his  15,000  cords  and  only  needs  180  acres  to  do  so  he  violates 
his  area-regulation,  and  if  it  keeps  up,  he  will  also  violate  his  rota- 
tion. Nevertheless  this  volume  check  enables  him  to  offer  the 
market  equal  quantities  of  material,  and  this  advantage  is  sufficiently 
great,  so  that  this  volume  check  is  commonly  applied  abroad  though 
fundamentally  an  Area  Regulation  is  maintained. 

7.  Methods  of  Regulating  the  Cut  in  amount,  by  Area  or  by 
Volume,  all  tend  toward  Regularity  of  Age  classes,  for  it  is  only  by 
establishing   this   regularity   of   Age   Classes   that   any   method   of 
Regulation  can  hope  to  secure  the  benefits  of  properly  regulated  or 
"normal"  forest  as  set  forth  above. 

But  none  of  these  methods  in  themselves  attend  to.  the  second 
great  task  of  Regulation,  mentioned  before,  Proper  Distribution  of 
Age  Classes,  or  stands  of  different  age,  in  the  forest.  In  the  above 
example,  the  forester  may  cut  one  piece  of  200  acres  after  another, 
so  that  at  the  end  of  twenty  years  he  would  have  4000  acres  of  young 
stuff  in  a  solid  body,  from  the  standpoint  of  protection  a  most  un- 
desirable condition,  in  Pine  and  similar  timber. 

8.  Being  simply  based  on  a  known  Area  of  land  or  an  esti- 
mated Volume  and  a  Rotation  agreed  upon,  or  some  kind  of  com- 
bination of  these,  the  matter  of  Regulation  of  the  Cut  in  Area  or 
Volume  lends  itself  to  mathematical  treatment  quite  in  the  abstract. 
For  this  reason  a  goodly  number  of  such  methods  have  been  devised 
and  published,  and  new  ones  are  still  springing  up  almost  ev.ery  year, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  only  a  very  few  ever  really  entered  the 
practice  and  that  after  a  century  of  discussion  and  trial,  greatest 
authorities  and  greatest  owners  of  forest,  like  the  States  of  Germany 
have  practically  all  returned  to  one   simple  method,  the   Limited 
Area  Allotment,  with  a  Volume  check,  the  "Judeiclrs  Method"  of 


i34  FOREST 

Schlich,  the  "Bestands  wirtschaft"  or  "Alters  Klassenmethode"  of 
Judeich  himself.* 

9.  The  following  Classification  of  Methods  of  Regulation  of 
the  Cut  "Ertragsbestimmung"  or  "Ertragsregelung",  is  taken  from 
Judeich. 

a.  Area  Methods  ("Flachenmethoden"). 

1.  Fixed  Yearly  Cut  (Schlich)  ;  "Schlageintheilung". 

2.  Area  Allotment ;  ("Flachenfachwerk"). 

b.  Volume  Methods  ("Massenmethoden"). 

1.  Volume  Allotment  ("Massenfachwerk"). 

2.  Methods  based  on  Normal  Growing  Stock    ("Normalvor- 
raths  methoden"). 

c.  Combined  Methods  ("Kombinierte  Methoden"). 

T.  Area  Allotment  with  Volume  Check  "Kombiniertes  Fach- 
werk". 

2.  Combination   of   Area   Allotment  with   Methods   based   on 
Normal  Growing  Stock. 

3.  Age  Class  Methods,  i.  e.,  Methods  working  primarily  for 
Regularity  of  Age  Classes. *  "Altersklassenmethoden"  or  "Besiands- 
wirtschaft". 

As  a  fourth  form  he  mentions  Wagener's  Regulation  by  Cuts 
of  Equal  Value,  which  apparently  is.  mentioned  more  as  a  curiosity 
than  a  thing  of  value  in  practice. 

B.    The  Regulated  or  Normal  Forest. 

Study  of  a  model  forest,  a  perfectly  regulated  forest,  fully 
stocked  and  all  stands  in  satisfactory  condition,  i.  e.,  a  "Normal 
Forest",  is  of  help  in  understanding  not  only  the  methods,  but  also 
the  real  objects  of  Regulation  of  the  Cut. 

*  See  also  the  recent  Textbooks  of  Judeich,  Martin,  Guttenberg,  Stoetzer, 
Weise;    also    Official    Instructions    of    Bavaria,    1912;    Borgman's    "Die    Ent- 
wickelung  d.   Forsteinrichtungswesens — Eberswalde — Biesenthal"  ;   and   Schil- 
ling's Article  in  "Zeitschrift  fur  Forst  und  Jagdwesen,"  1913,  October. 

*  It  is*  singular  that  Judeich  persisted  in  the  above  Classification  of  this 
most  important  of  all  Methods.     A  glance  at  his  problems  and  explanations 
shows  that  it  is  an  Area  Regulation  with  volume  merely  as  a  check.     Stoetzer 
(see  p.  213  of  his  book)   recognized  this  and  calls  it  a  "limited  Area  Allot- 
ment",   "beschranktes    Flachenfachwerk.      See    also    Schilling   in    "Zeitschrift 
fur    Forst    und    Jagdwesen,"    1913,    October.      But    also    Wagner's    "Grund- 
lagen,  etc  " 


NORMAL  FOREST  135 

1.  Let  a  given  forest  have  an  area  of  12,000  acres,  all  of  the 
same  quality  of  land,  site  II,  and  be  stocked  with  Pine,  managed  on 
a  rotation  of  sixty  years.     Being  perfectly  regular  in  age  classes, 
there  are  on  this  forest  in  the  fall  of  the  year  and  before  the  yearly 
cut  is  made,  200  acres  of  sixty-year  old  timber,  200  acres  of  fifty- 
nine-year  old,  etc.,  down  to  200  acres  of  plantations  one  season  old. 

2.  If  we  take  one  acre  sample  of  each  of  these  stands  we  get  a 
miniature  model  forest  of  sixty  acres  with  one  acre  sixty  years  old, 
one  acre  59  years  old,  etc. 

This  small  model  or  sample  forest  can  be  regarded  as  a  separate 
normal  forest  and  what  is  true  of  this  sample  applies  also  to  the 
12,000  acre  forest. 

This  sixty  acre  model  or  sample  is  represented  by  a  diagram  in 
Fig.  7 ;  each  strip  represents  the  volume  of  wood  on  one  acre  of 
land.  The  strip  at  the  right  represents  one  acre  of  sixty  years  old 
timber  now  ready  to  cut  or  the  Yield  of  one  acre,  i.  e.,  Yr.,  say 
5600  cubic  ft. 

3.  If  the  silvicultural  plan  is  to  cut  clear  and  plant  at  the  age 
of  sixty  and  thin  each  stand  every  six  years,  then  the  work  on  this 
Normal  forest  of  sixty  acres  is  as  follows :   Each  year  there  is :   . 

One  acre  cut  clear. 

One  acre  of  six-year  old,  one  acre  twelve  years  old,  etc.,  in  all 
nine  acres  are  thinned. 
One  acre  is  planted. 
Sixty  acres  are  cared  for  and  have  taxes  paid  on  them. 

4.  Leaving  out  of  consideration  growth  and  cut  of  stuff  re- 
moved in  thinnings,  the  following  is  true : 

a.  Cut  each  year  is  5600  cubic  ft.,  i.  e.,  the  stuff  on  one  acre  of 
ripe,  or  sixty-year  old  timber. 

b.  Growth  on  the  sixty  acres  is  5600  cubic  ft.  per  year  or  the 
amount  cut  each  year.     The  growth  being  sixty  acres,  and  the  cut 
on  one  acre  we  do  not  cut  the  growth  of  the  year,  but  an  amount 
equal  to  the  growth. 

c.  Growing  Stock  on  sixty  acres  is  indicated  by  the  triangle 
at  least  closely  enough  for  our  purpose  here.     This  triangle  has  an 
area : 

60  X  5600/2  =  Yr  X  r/2. 

Growing  Stock  168,000  cubic  feet. 


36 


FOREST  REGULATION 


d.  Growth  on  this  sixty-acre  sample  of  normal  forest  during" 
one  rotation  of  sixty  years  is  60  X  5600  —  336000  cubic  feet,  or 
twice  the  amount  of  Growing  Stock  found  on  the  sixty  acres  at  any 
one  time.     In  other  words,  the  Growing  Stock  is  replaced  every 
thirty  years,  or  in  general  in  r/2  years. 

e.  Growing  Stock  is  reduced  each  winter  by  the  yearly  cut,  of 
5600  cubic  feet,  and  is  replenished  the  following  summer  by  the 
season's  growth. 


FIGURE  /.  Diagram  of  a  6o-acre  Sample  of  a  perfectly  regular  or  Nor- 
mal Forest.  In  this  forest  of  60  acres :  r  is  the  Rotation  or  60  years,  Yr  is 
the  ripe  timber  60  years  old  on  one  acre,  (5600  cu.  ft.  in  our  example)  G  is 
the  Growing  stock  on  60  acres,  varying  in  age  from  I  to  60  years.  This  G 
does  not  change,  i.  e.,  it  is  the  same  every  year.  Each  strip  represents  the 
volume  of -timber  or  wood  of  one  acre;  and  the  volume  is  here  assumed  to 
vary  directly  as  the  age.  The  cut  of  ripe  timber  in  each  year  is  Yr  equal  to 
the  growth  on  60  acres.  The  cut  in  60  years'  is  60  X  Yr  (The  parallelogram 
in  figure  )  or  twice  the  growing  stock  found  at  any  one  time.  Thinnings  are 
neglected  in  this  consideration. 


\  OR  MAI,  FOREST  137 

f.  The  growth  of  5600  cuhic  feet  is  the  growth  of  ripe  timber; 
it  is  made  by  sixty  acres  of  growing  trees  and  each  acre  makes  or 
is  assumed  to  make  5600/60  =  93.3  cubic  feet,  the  average  yearly 
growth  of  ripe  timber  on  one  acre.    This  distinction  of  growth  of 
"ripe  timber"  is  made  because  the  growth  of  the  material  taken  in 
thinnings  is  omitted  in  this  consideration. 

g.  Yearly  cut  of  5600  cubic  feet  from  this  sixty-acre  forest 
forms  a  definite  portion  of  the  growing  stock  which  may  be  ex- 
pressed in  per  cent : 

Cut  as  percent  of  Growing  Stock  =  5600  X  100/168000==  3.3%, 
i.  e.,  each  year  3.3%  of  the  Growing  Stock  is  cut,  and  we  can  also 
say  that  the  average  growth  of  this  growing  timber  is  3.3%  in 
Volume.  This  conception  was  used  by  Hundeshagen  in  his  Method 
of  Regulation. 

h.  The  Cut  of  5600  expressed  as  a  fraction  of  the  Growing" 
stock  is : 

Cut  =  Growing  Stock  /  ]/2  the  years  in  rotation  =  2G/r  = 
168000/30  =  5600,  which  is  a  useful  conception  applied  in  Von 
Mantel's  Modification  of  Hundeshagen's  Method  of  Regulation. 

i.  A  glance  at  the  Diagram  Fig.  7  shows  that  if  all  of  the 
sixty  acres  were  stocked  with  forty-year  old  timber,  the  growth 
would  be  greater  than  it  now  is  (forty-year  old  stuff  being  in  the 
age  of  most  rapid  growth),  and  the  amount  of  growing  stock  would 
be  greater  than  in  the  regulated  forest  but  it  would  not  be  possible 
to  have  a  yearly  cut,  until  the  forest  were  again  regulated  to  its 
present  condition  of  Age  Classes.  Again  the  sixty  acres  might  have 
all  timber  eighty  or  TOO  years  old  and  so  a  very  large  amount  of 
growing  stock  and  capital  and  yet  have  a  small  amount  of  growth, 
and  be  unable  to  furnish  a  yearly  cut  without  considerable  sacrifice. 
This  merely  illustrates  that  it  is  only  in  the  Regulated  forest  that 
Growth,  Cut  and  Capital  are  properly  balanced  to  supply  best  yearly 
cut  and  income. 

5.  Perfect  regularity  in  matter  of  Age  Classes,  growth  and 
Growing  Stock  is  probably  never  attained  in  any  forest.  On  the 
other  hand  it  is  quite  surprising  how  perfect  the  regularity  of  Age 
Classes  is  coming  to  be  on  larger  State  forest  properties  of  Europe 
and  how  readily  and  steadily  this  regularity  maintains  and  perfects 
itself  under  well  planned  management. 


138 


FOREST  REGULATION 


Fig.  8  illustrates  the  Regularity  of  Age  Classes  on  Working 
Section  No.  II  of  the  Sihlwald  of  the  City  of  Zurich,  a  78oacre  tract 
of  forest  on  rather  steep  mountain  slopes  and  frequently  injured  by 
heavy  snows,  and  therefore  difficult  to  keep  in  well  regulated 
condition.  • 


/00+ 

Age-Class    Condx 

WorKmcj    SecV\o\?y 

UL«.o.il\lwaid  -  -  \*\\ 

C  \o-\\s 
X 

_^jj 

\  over- 

J  /oay. 

Jy.  aid-  . 

80-<?0 

90-/M 

to-yo 

70-80 

60-70 

J 

50-60 

w-so 

30  -to 

20-30 

/0^20 

/-/O 

acres 

37 

7S 

//7 

/oz. 

/OS 

/oz 

70 

//O 

Lot-M> 

<f 

/O 

// 

/£ 

/3 

/f 

/S 

/(> 

Cu/C  ; 


FIGURI;  8.  Diagram  of  Age  Class  Conditions  on  Working  Section  No.  II 
of  the  Sihlwald,  near  Zurich,  Switzerland.  This  Working  Section  of  about 
780  acres,  contains  lots  No.  9-16  and  is  ramarkably  regular  in  its  age  classes 
in  spite  of  much  trouble  from  snow.  Some  lots  contain  timber  of  more  than 
one  2O-year  age  class;  see  lot  n  with  timber  in  Age  Class  I  and  II.  After 
Meister. 


The  forest  occupies  one  side  of  a  valley  running  North  and 
South,  cut  is  from  North  to  South,  division  into  eight  lots,  the 
method  shelterwood.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  age  of  timber  on  the 
same  lot  may  or  may  not  be  uniform.  Regulation  by  Austrian — 
Heyer  Method  is  prescribed  officially. 


REGULATION  OF  CUT 


139 


C.    Area  Methods. 
i.    Fixed  Yearly  Cut. 

a.    In  Coppice. 

Let  Fig.  9  represent  forty  acres  of  Woods. 

Method :  Coppice. 

Rotation :  Twenty  years. 

Also  assume  that  it  is  advisable,  i.  e.,  not  too  wasteful  to  start 
cutting  in  cutting  area  No.  i  ;  next  year  in  No.  2,  etc.,  to  No.  20. 
Regulation  then  simply  divides  this  forty  acres  into  twenty  equal 
parts  or  twenty  cutting  areas,  of  two  acres  each,  and  plans  to  cut 
one  of  these  everv  vear. 


/o 


/8 


/7 


FIGURE  9.  Diagram  illustrating  the  Fixed  Yearly  Cut  in  Coppice.  The 
40-acre  lot  is  divided  into  20  equal  or  equivalent  pieces,  and  one  piece  is  cut 
each  year,  preventing  all  over-cutting  and  assuring  proper  age  class  condi- 
tions and  maintenance  of  the  adopted  rotation. 

In  actual  practice  these  areas  may  be  monumented  to  save  the 
trouble  of  re-stirvey,  and  assure  greater  accuracy. 

If  this  plan  is  followed,  the  small,  coppice  woods  will  be  regu- 
lated in  twenty  years,  and  this  regulation  will  have  accomplished  the 
usual  objects;  it  will  have: 

Secured  an  equal  yearly  cut. 

Perfect  regularity  of  Age  Classes. 

A  normal  Growing  Stock. 

Maintenance  of  the  twentv-vear  Rotation. 


140  FOREST  REGULATION 

If  continued  this  plan  will  effectively  prevent  overcut  and  undercut, 
and  always  furnish  material  twenty  years  old  or  of  desired  age. 
size  and  quality. 

b.    In  Selection  Forest. 

Assume:   Forest  of  one  Township  (about  22000  acres). 

Method :   Selection. 

Rotation:    About  150  years,  judged  by  diameter  of  trees. 

Period  of  Return:   Twenty  years. 

Growing  Stock  :   5000  cubic  feet  per  acre  by  actual  cruise. 

Level  country,  can  log  any  part  desired. 

Regulation  of  Cut  here  divides  the  forest  into  twenty  equal 
parts  as  in  the  case  of  Coppice,  and  plans  to  cut  over  about  noo 
acres  or  about  twenty-eight  forties  per  year. 

Since  only  part  of  the  timber  is  cut  at  each  return,  the  question 
at  every  cut  is :  how  much,  or  what  proportion  of  the  stand  should 
be  taken?  Generally  this  is  left  to  the  forester,  whose  good  sense 
and^knowledge  of  silviculture  are  relied  upon.  But  in  many  cases 
this  is  unsafe  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  decide  either  on  the 
quantity  or  volume  to  remove,  or  the  proportion  of  the  total  stand 
which  may  be  cut.  In  wild  woods  the  matter  is  complicated  by  the 
great  irregularity  which  exists,  and  also  by  the  large  amount  of  old. 
defective,  crippled,  undesirable  material  on  the  ground.  Here  it  is 
often  necessary  to  combine  regular  Clear  Cutting,  or  Clear  Cut 
with  seed  trees  in  the  regular  Selection  Method,  and  much  freedom 
must  be  of  necessity  allowed  to  the  forester.  The  first  going  over 
generally  takes  over-ripe,  ripe,  and  defective,  it  is  a  cut  of  ripe  tim- 
ber combined  with  an  improvement  cutting  just  as  far  as  market  and 
good  silviculture  allow  and  demand. 

These  conditions  become  better  with  each  return,  provided  the 
overcut,  which  is  almost  sure  to  occur  in  many  Cxases,  does  not  hurt 
the  forest  to  a  point  where  reproduction  is  effectively  prevented  or 
seriously  retarded. 

In  planning  the  first  cut  the  stand  to  be  left  on  the  ground  is 
the  principal  consideration,  for  the  irregularity  of  the  woods  prac- 
tically prevents  more  than  a  general  figure  of  volume  per  acre  or  of 
proportion  to  leave  and  take.  After  several  returns,  a  more,  definite 
regulation  or  volume  check  can  be  applied. 


FIXF.D  YSARI.Y  CUT  141 

For  this  Volume  Check,  in  using  the  Fixed  Yearly  Cut  Method 
of  Regulation  for  the  Selection  forest,  Hundeshagen's  reasoning 
appears  quite  sufficient.  This,  as  modified  by  Von  Mantel  permits 
the  cut  to  take  2G/r  every  year. 

In  our  forest  of  22000  acres,  with  a  growing  stock  of  5000 
cubic  feet  per  acre  or  a  total  of 

5000  X  22000—  no  million  cubic  ft.  of  Growing  Stock  and  a 
rotation  of  150  years  (decided  upon)  we  could  cut 

2  X  110,000,000/150=  1,460,000  cu.  ft.  per  year. 
Since  this  1,460,000  cu.  ft.  is  cut  on  one-twentieth  part  of  the  town- 
ship or  noo  acres,  the  cut  per  acre  is 

1,460,060/1 100  or  about  1300  cu.  ft.  per  acre,  actually  cut  over. 
A  simpler  way  is  :  Cut  =  2G/r  20  per  acre  at  each  return. 
This  per  acre  and  with  above  premises : 

2  X  5000/150  20—  1300  cu.  ft. 

With  a  twenty-year  return  then  the  cut  takes  2O/r  (2G)  =  4o/r  G. 
With  an  ordinary  rotation  of  100  years  this  would  mean  about  40% 
of  the  growing  stock.  From  a  silvicultural  standpoint  this  would 
be  a  very  heavy  cut,  and  for  rotations  of  100  years  and  less,  a  twenty 
year  return  is  too  long  except  for  pure  stands  of  intolerants.  With 
a  ten-year  return  and  a  cut  of  20%  a  much  better  silviculture  is 
possible.  The  amount  or  proportion  to  take  out  at  each  return 
depends  on  site,  tolerance  of  species,  market,  etc.  With  intolerant 
pine  more  must  be  cut  to  enable  reproduction ;  on  poor  sites  less 
should  be  cut  to  avoid  soil  deterioration ;  with  poor  site  and  poor 
market,  good  silviculture  must  be  sacrificed  and  more  taken  to  make 
possible  selling  the  stuff  at  all,  etc. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  evident  that  in  the  Selection  Forest, 
Area  Regulation  is,  of  necessity,  combined  with  a  Volume  Regula- 
tion or  Volume  check. 

.  This  method  of  logging  over  a  definite  area,  and  covering  a 
property  in  a  given  time  is  perfectly  practical  and  advisable.  As  in 
all  cases  of  Regulation  the  property  should  be  examined  from  time 
to  time,  preferably  every  ten  years,  and  a  plan  adapted  as  the  condi- 


1 42  FOREST  REGULATION 

tions  of  reproduction,  growth,  and  of  market  suggest.  Criticisms 
against  this  method  are  generally  based  on  the  false  assumption  that 
when  a  division  and  plan  is  once  made,  it  must  be  followed  without 
regard  to  changed  conditions  in  the  forest.* 

Where  Shelterwood  and  Clear  Cutting  Methods  are  employed, 
a  division  into  smaller  lots  and  into  Cutting  Series  and  also  a  more 
flexible  plan  become  necessary.  In  the  Selection  forest  the  slow 
and  easy  ways  of  nature  are  relied  upon,  every  lot  receives  a 
thorough  cutting  over  every  10-15  years,  mishaps  in  reproduction 
are  reduced  to  minute  areas  and  are  left  for  nature  to  take  care  of. 
In  clear  cutting  and  planting  things  are  forced,  every  acre  must 
justify  extra  expenses  and  therefore  every  acre  must  be  in  a  position 
where  it  can  receive  attention  and  care  at  any  time.  As  soon  as  such 
a  stand  lags  behind  in  growth  the  plan  of  regulation  must  provide 
for  its  removal.  All  this  is  not  possible  with  a  fixed  yearly  cut  in  a 
large  property,  and  therefore  this  method  has  generally  been  re- 
placed by  the  following,  either  in  ordinary  or  limited  form. 

2.    Area  Allotment. 

The  following  example  illustrates  this  Method : 

Plan  for  1914-1933.' 

Area  of  Forest :  4000  acres. 

Species :    Spruce. 

Method :   Clear  Cut  and  Plant. 

Rotation :    TOO  years,  hence  five  age  classes. 

All  one  site,  no  "reduction  of  areas"  necessary. 

Yield  per  acre  of  loo-year  old  stand  fully  stocked :  9000  cu.  ft. 

Plan  of  Utilization:  all  stands  in  Age  Class  V  (80-100  years 
old)  and  older,  are  considered  ripe ;  also  all  defective  stands  and 
stands  in  poor  condition  of  growth. 

a.  The  first  step  is  to  prepare  a  table  of  Age  Classes  from  the 
detail  field  examination.  From  this  a  table  of  allotment  as  follows : 

*  Such  a  misconception  of  Working  Plans  in  general,  and  especially  of 
Plan  for  Regulation  of  the  Cut  has  led  to  much  unnecessary  controversy,  and 
has  often  led  the  practicing  forester  to  speak  of  the  Plans  as  "Paper  Jokes." 
See  'Michaelis,  "Betriebsregulierung,"  1006. 


AREA  ALIjOTMRNT 


143 


TABLE  OF  ALLOTMENT. 


Lot 
and 
Sub- 
lot. 

Area 
in 
Acres. 

Age. 

Stock- 
in  I/IO 

of 
full. 

Areas   in   Acres   Alloted   to   Each 
Period. 

Notes. 

Years. 

Class. 

1914- 

1933 

acres. 

1934- 
1953 

acres. 

1954- 
1973 
acres. 

1974- 

1993 
acres. 

1994- 
2013 

acres. 

la 

40 

70 

IV 

6 

40 

la.   Quite 
defective, 
needs  re- 
moval. 
43.    Has 
been  open 
a  long  time, 
stuff   large, 
can  be  cut 
now. 
10.    Very 
poor  stand, 
insect-in- 
jured, re- 
move soon. 

ib 

40 

85 

V 

8 

40 

2 

80 

30 

II 

9 

80 

3 

60 

45 

III 

8 

60 

43. 

30 

75 

IV 

7 

30 

4«b 

50 

15 

I 

9 

50 

5 

70 

22 

II 

8 

70 

6 

90 

95 

V 

8 

90 

7 

65 

104 

V 

7 

65 

8 

40 

35 

II 

9 

40 

9 

55 

12 

I 

9 

55 

10 

80 

41 

III 

6 

80 

Etc.,  etc.    This  is  continued  for  all  lots  of  the  forest. 

Total  have: 
Should  have  : 

470 
800 

1130 
800 

1050 

800 

930 

800 

420 

800 

b.  A  study  of  this  table  of  Age  Classes  tells  the  forester: 
That  the  forest  is  deficient  in  ripe  timber  and  quite  irregular, 

has  plenty  of  middle  age  stuff,  and  lacks  in  young  stands. 

It  also  tells  that  certain  stands  in  Age  Class  IV,  like  la  and  4a 
can  well  be  placed  with  ripe  timber  to  be  cut  during  coming  twenty 
years.  Also  that  the  stand  in  lot  ten  though  only  forty-one  years 
old  should  be  cut  and  the  land  replanted. 

c.  In   this   way   the   forester  has   the   whole   situation   placed 
clearly  before  him,  and  he  is  enabled  to  shift  the  stands  and  decide 
definitely  what  is  to  be  cut  during  the  next  twenty  years. 

In  this  particular  case  he  might  shift  all  defective,  all  specially 
large  timber  from  the  second  column  into  the  first,  so  as  to  increase 
the  cut  of  the  next  twenty  years  and  avoid  having  too  large  a  mass 
of  stuff  on  hand  in  twenty  and  again  in  forty  years  from  now.  If 
the  market  takes  stuff  60-80  years  old  he  might  readily  make 


i44  FOREST  REGULATION 

up,  in  this  way,  a  full  8oo-acre  cut  for  the  first  period.  Even  then 
he  would  not  prevent  entirely  some  of  the  timber  from  going  over 
the  100  years,  unless  he  is  ready  to  cut  over  800  acres  in  the  period 

I954-I973- 

d.  In  twenty  years  the  forest  is  again  examined  and  described ; 
an  entirely  new  plan  is  made ;  the  stands  are  again  allotted  to  various 
periods  in  keeping  with  the  condition  in  which  they  are  found  in 

1934- 

e.  To  this  Regulation  is  normally  added,  an  estimate  of  the 
amount  of  timber  which  the  Stands  finally  placed  in  the  first  column 
(period  1914-1933)  will  furnish  when  cut.    A  common  method  is  as 
follows : 

Lot  6,  90  acres,  0.8  stocked  will  be  (presumably)  100  years 
old  when  cut  (middle  of  period)  and  will  then  furnish  per  acre: 
0.8  X  oooo  cubic  feet  or  7200  cubic  feet  per  acre ;  total  90  X  7200  = 
648,000  cubic  feet.  Of  late  the  importance  of  Volume  check  has  in- 
creased. 

f.  These  estimates  are  not  binding,  area  rules.     If  the  cut  for 
the  period  of  twenty  years  is  set  at  760  acres,  the  yearly  cut  is 
760/20  -—  38  acres. 

g.  The  Method  of  Area  Allotment  was  first  clearly  developed 
by   Cotta ;  it  has   been  modified  in  keeping  with   progress   in   the 
Regularity  of  State  forests.     Instead  of  insisting  on  a  rigid  continu- 
ation of  a  first  plan,  the  plan  itself  is  renewed  at  regular  intervals 
(ten  years  Saxony,  twenty  years  in  other  states).     This  method  has 
outlived  and  displaced  practically  all  others,  and  its  superiority  has 
induced  the  Prussian  Government  to  continue  it  in  official  Instruc- 
tions of  1912. 

In  criticising  this  Method  the  mistake  is  usually  made  of 
assuming  that  because  the  forester  works  out  a  few  good  tables 
which  tell  him  exactly  the  age  and  condition  of  every  stand,  and 
because  in  making  these  tables  he  places  the  stands  in  different 
period  columns,  the  Plan  is  binding  for  an  entire  rotation  and  the 
Method  correspondingly  rigid  and  useless.  Part  of  this  mistaken 
criticism  is  due  to  the'  fact  that  a  century  ago  when  forests  were 
cheap,  and  money  scarce,  the  administration,  even  such  excellent 
men  as  Hartig,  did  not  dare  to  hope  that  the  forests  would  stand  the 
expenses  of  re-surveys  and  Plan-revisions  every  ten  or  twenty  years. 


AREA  ALLOTMENT  145 

That  these  Area  Allotment  Plans  were  often  misused  by  narrow- 
minded,  domineering  officialdom  was  no  fault  of  the  Plans. 

h.  Area  Allotment  is  suited  to  any  forest,  to  all  conditions, 
provided  there  is  market  for  the  material  to  be  cut,  and  for  very 
irregular,  mismanaged  forests  it  has  no  equal.  The  very  fact  that  it 
demands  a  careful  study  and  placing  before  the  forester  (on  paper) 
of  every  stand  in  the  forest  assures  continued  attention  and  care  of 
every  tract,  a  matter  so  easily  overlooked  and  forgotten  in  a  property 
of  which  the  inspector  or  owner  may  not  see  large  portions  in 
a  whole  lifetime. 

3.    Limited  Area  Allotment  or  Judeich's  Method. 

''Judeich's  Method"  (Schlich)  ;  "Alters  Klassen  methode" 
(Judeich).  "Bestands  wirtschaft"  of  Judeich  and  other  authors. 

This  is  a  method  of  Area  Allotment ;  work  in  field  and  in  office 
is  the  same  as  in  the  foregoing,  except  that  the  columns  for  periods 
2-5  are  left  out  entirely.  Stands  for  the  next  twenty  years  (in 
Saxony  ten  years)  are  picked  out  as  before,  i.  e.,  ripe  and  defective 
stands,  and  also  some  stands  which  must  be  cut  to  build  new  lines, 
etc.,  areas  are  added  and  if  this  sums  up  to  more  than  the  normal 
cutting  area  for  the  forest,  reductions  are  made.  In  these  reductions 
or  additions  the  condition  of  younger  stands  is  also  considered. 

Advantages  claimed  for  this  Method  lie  in  the  greater  freedom 
of  action  for  the  forester.  It  is  usually  claimed  that  this  Method 
only  binds  the  action  for  the  coming  ten  or  twenty  years,  while 
regular  Area  Allotment  is  claimed  to  be  binding  for  an  entire  rota- 
tion. This  is  not  true. 

In  a  very  irregular  forest,  consideration  of  the  younger  timber 
is  so  important  that  some  tabulation  must  be  done  to  bring  out  the 
facts.  Whether  this  table  then  stays  in  the  plan  or  goes  into  the 
wastebasket  may  not  be  important,  but,  as  Schilling  correctly  says, 
it  ought  to  stay  in  the  plan.  This  method  of  the  Limited  Area 
Allotment  was  the  natural  result  of  the  rapid  progress  in  forest 
regulation  during  the  years  1820-1870.  The  State  forests  of  Saxony 
for  instance  had  become  so  regular,  work  in  the  forest  was  so 
orderly  and  reliable  that  there  was  no  further  need  of  bringing  into 
the  \Vorking  Plan  any  stands  which  were  not  yet  ready  or  in  need 
•of  cutting  and  replanting. 


146  FOREST  REGULATION 

a.  This    Method    gained    favor    among    practicing    foresters 
chiefly  because  it  relieved  them  of  some  pressure  from  upper  offices, 
and  prevented  somewhat  the  office  insisting  on  the  old  plan,  long 
after  conditions  of  the  woods  made  new  provisions  necessary.     But 
all  this  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  Method  itself.    The  new  departure 
in  the  Prussian  Instructions  of  1912  does  all  this  much  better  by 
giving  the  forester  himself  the  task  of  making  his  own  working 
plans. 

b.  In   Limited   Area   Allotment,   Volume   Check   is   generally 
demanded.    The  timber  of  all  older  stands,  (ripe  and  near  ripe  and 
also  defective)  is  estimated,  and  the  Volume  for  the  Period  and  each 
year  set  down  in  the  Plan.     This  is  merely  estimate,  and  is  chiefly 
intended  to  prevent  great  fluctuations  in  amount  of  stuff  to  be  sold. 
Estimates  even  in  Saxony  are  generally  ocular  when  made  for  this 
purpose. 

c.  In  a  new  country  and  on  large  properties,  these  Area  Allot- 
ments can  not  be  used  without  modification.     It  is  useless  to  allot 
an  area  of  forest  to  the  period  1914-1934  when  it  is  evident  that 
none  of  the  timber  on  this  area  can  be  sold.     In  these  large  proper- 
ties, now  practically  restricted  to  the  far  West,  accessible  areas,  or 
areas  with  market,  must  be  temporarily  separated  into  independent 
Working  Sections  if  an  Area  Allotment  is  to  apply. 

D.    Volume  Methods  of  Regulating  the  Cut. 

In  trying  to  Regulate  the  cut  by  Volume  the  aim  is  to  cut  each 
year  about  as  much  as  grows  in  the  forest.  In  cases  of  wild  woods 
where  growth  and  decay  practically  balance,  the  cut  also  takes  what 
the  forest  grows,  i.  e.,  the  cut  replaces  decay.*  In  any  case  of 
Regulation  by  Volume  the  question  arises :  how  much  does  the 
forest  produce,  or  how  .much  can  be  cut  without  cutting  into  the 
capital  ? 

*  It  may  'be  argued  that  by  doing  so  the  cut  by  man,  and  decay  or  har- 
vest by  nature  taken  together  make  an  overcut,  i.  e.,  removes  twice  the  growth. 
There  is  truth  here,  providing  the  forester  has  no  choice  of  stands  at  all. 
If  he  has  market  for  all,  and  is  in  position  to  get  at  old  and  defective  stands, 
then  the  above  reasoning  is  not  true.  In  any  case,  the  importance  of  this 
decay  is  lessened  year  by  year.  Nevertheless,  this  matter  is  of  some  weight 
and  indicates  need  for  conservative  estimate  in  setting  the  Cut  in  Volume. 


VOI..U M F,  AU.OTM KNT  1 47 

1.  On  a  property  of  20,000  acres  of  forest  it  is  utterly  impos- 
sible to  measure  accurately  the  amount  of  growth.    And  herein  lies 
the  weakness  of   all   Regulation   by   Volume.     In   area   regulation 
quantities  are  exactly  known,  if  rotation  is  eighty  years,  the  forester 
knows  that  a  normal  cut  is  20000/80  =  250  acres.     Volume  Regula- 
tion, on  the  other  hand,  is  fortunate  if  Growing  Stock  is  known 
within  15%,  and  as  to  the  growth,  it  can  only  be  inferred  from  a 
comparison  to  known  conditions  (Yield  Tables)  or  from  stump-  and 
stem-analyses  and  an  estimate  of  how  far  these  analyses  apply  in 
the  actual  Stand.     In  well  regulated  forests  of  Spruce  in  Saxony 
these  estimates  are  amply  reliable,  in  wild  woods  they  rarely  are. 

2.  For  these  reasons  Volume  Regulation  is  never  more  than  an 
initial  step  and  has  given  way  to  area  regulation  wherever  forestry 
has  made  real  progress. 

But  as  a  beginning  it  has  value,  and  this  is  especially  true  under 
conditions  where  only  portions  of  the  forest  have  any  market  at  all, 
and  where  large  areas  are  in  a  formative  state,  of  great  and  certain 
value  in  the  near  future  and  yet  of  no  sale  value  at  the  present  time. 

3.  When  Regulation  has  decided  the  Volume  which  may  be  cut, 
say  15,000  cords  from  20,000  acres,  it  has  done  practically  all  that 
Method  of  Regulation  of  the  Cut  can  do  and  the  rest  is  a  matter  of 
proper  distribution,  i.   e.,  what  stands  to  cut,  and  of  silviculture. 
For  this  reason  most  Volume  methods  attempt  only  to  estimate  the 
amount  of  timber  to  be  cut. 

i.    Volume  Allotment. 

The  following  case  illustrates  this  method : 
a.    Plan  for  1914-1933. 
Area  of  forest  20,000  acres. 
Species :    Pine. 

System  :   Clear  Cut  and  Plant. 
Rotation  :  80  years,  hence  4  age  classes. 

Site       I — 20%  of  area,  yield  at  80  years  7000  cu.  ft.  per  acre. 
Site    II — 50%  of  area,  yield  at  80  years  5600  cu.  ft.  per  acre. 
Site  III — 30%  of  area,  yield  at  80  years  4200  cu.  ft.  per  acre. 
All  areas  to  be  ''reduced  on  plan : 

Site  I  acre  =i}4  acre  "reduced"  area. 
Site  II  acre  =  i  acre  "reduced"  area. 
Site  III  acre  =  1/4  acre  "reduced"  area. 


148 


REGULATION 


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VOLUME  ALLOTMENT  149 

Plan  of  Utilization :  All  stands  over  sixty  years  old  are  ripe, 
and  also  all  defective,  and  broken  stands,  and  those  with  a  current 
growth  in  value  of  less  than  3%.  All  thinnings  are  lumped  at  300 
cubic  feet  per  acre  for  each  thinning,  these  to  come  twice  in  every 
period,  i.  e.,  every  ten  years,  so  that  each  acre  is  credited  with  600 
cubic  feet,  of  thinnings,  for  each  period  but  none  during  the  period 
in  which  the  stand  is  planted. 

c.  From  the  above  Plan  it  appears  that  the  first  Period  (1914- 
1933)  is  deficient  in  ripe  stuff,  that  the  forest  is  quite  irregular,  that 
Age  Class  II  is  unduly  represented.     As  in  the  case  of  AVea  Allot- 
ment, there  is  considerable  shifting  of  stands  from  the  second  into 
the  first  period  column.     All  defective,  broken  stands  such  as  those 
of  lots  five  and  eight- are  assigned  to  the  cut  of  the  next  twenty  years. 
In  this  way  easily  eight  million  cubic  feet  can  be  assigned  to  Period 
one,  with  the  expectation  that  in  1934  a  re-shifting  of  part  of  what 
is  now  Period  No,  3,  into  Period  No.  2  will  take  place. 

d.  In  the  above  plan  the  Cut  of  eighteen  million  cubic  feet  is 
definitely  located  through  selection  of  ripe  stands.    But  the  forester 
has  abundance  of  choice,  as  to  the  stands  to  be  cut  the  first,  second, 
etc.,  year.     If  at  any  time  during  the  twenty  years,  or  the  life  of 
this  plan  one  stand  appears  more  in  need  of  removal  than  another 
there  is  nothing  to  hinder  the  forester.    In  this  way  every  stand  can 
receive  attention  and  all  timber  cutting  may  be  decided  by  financial 
or  other  considerations,  provided  always  that  the  forest  is  in  right 
condition,   is*  properly   divided   into   lots   and   Cutting   Series,   and 
receives  proper  care  in  silviculture.     Since  the  timber  alloted  to  the 
next  twenty  years'  cut  is  not  all  cut  in  one  year,  but  in  twenty  years, 
there  is  quite  an  appreciable  amount  of  growth  on  this  timber.    This 
growth  is  usually  added  as  a  lump  sum,  it  being  assumed  that  the 
whole  mass  grows  for  one-half  of  twenty  years  as  an  average.     So 
if  twenty  million  feet  are  assigned  and  they  may  be  assumed  to  grow 
at  2%,  the  total  mass  is  20  (i.O210)=  1.22  (20)  =24.4  million  feet. 

e.  The   Method  of  Volume  Allotment  as  outlined   above   re- 
sembles Area  Allotment.     If  well  done,  and  properly  revised  every 
twenty  years  there  is  no  reason  why  this  plan  should  not  work  for 


150  FOREST  REGULATION 

greater  regularity  of  Age  Classes,  and  with  this  for  a  better  forest 
business. 

It  works  entirely  with  estimated  quantities  in  its  allotments,  and 
it  works  in  part  with  quantities  or  stands  not  yet  even  planted.  This 
defect  is  easily  overstated.  The  farmer  who  buys  a  farm,  practically 
estimates  the  value  of  the  farm  on  the  basis  of  crops  to  be  sown  and 
harvested  in  the  future. 

This  method  was  brought  into  prominence  by  Hartig,  and  made, 
for  a  time,  the  official  method  of  the  state  forests  of  Prussia.  It 
did  good  service,  but  was  later  displaced  by  the  more  accurate  Area 
Allotment  which  works  with  quantities  accurately  measured  and 
permanent. 

f .  Best  critics  usually  charge  that  cuts  of  equal  amount  are  not 
always  desirable,  that  if  much  old  timber  exists  there  should  be 
freedom  to  remove  it,  and  also  that  estimates  for  the  future  are  too 
uncertain.  They  also  state  that  this  method  has  more  regard  for 
the  interests  of  the  owner  and  market  than  Area  Allotment.*  All 
through  these  discussions  it  is  apparent  that  objections  are  based  on 
conditions  which  are  not  necessarily  parts  of  the  Method,  but  are 
more  mistakes  in  the  application  of  the  Method. 

2.    Growing  Stock  Methods.   Austrian  and  Hundeshagen. 

In  these  Methods  the  cut  of  timber  to  be  taken  each  year  is 
gauged  by  the  amount  of  Growing  Stock  on  the  land. 

a.  Austrian  Method  and  Heyer's  Modification  of  this,  or 
Heyer's  Formula. 

In  wild  woods  with  their  irregularities  of  growing  stock,  and 
age  classes,  and  their  long  rotations  (life  of  tree)  a  particular  forest 
may  have  more  growing  stock  than  is  necessary  to  get  the  best 
growth  under  shortened  (man-made)  rotation.  In  such  a  case  it  is 
desirable  to  cut,  not  only  the  growth,  but  also  to  cut  some  of  this 
surplus,  stored-up  wood  capital,  and  gradually  reduce  the  growing 
stock  to  a  normal  or  proper  amount,  in  keeping  with  rotation.  This 
is  done  according  to  the  following  formula : 

*  See  Martin,  p.  209;  Judeich,  p.  356. 


AUSTRIAN   METHOD 


Yearly  Cut  =  Yearly  Growth  -f-  Actual  Growing  Stock  —  Nor- 
mal Growing  Stock  divided  by  an  arbitrary  period  of  years,  or 

Ga  —  Gn 
Cut  =  Growth  -J- 

a. 

Gr  —  Gn 
Also  written  :   Y  =  Ir  -\  --  ......  (Schlich).* 

ci 

Where  Ir  is  Real  or  actual  Growth  or  "increment",  Gr  is  real  or 
actual  Growing  Stock  and  a  is  a  period  of  years  set  arbitrarily  in 
keeping  with  conditions  found  on  the  property. 

The  formula  clearly  shows  the  plan  ;  the  surplus,  or  amount  of 
growing  stock  over  and  above  normal,  is  divided  by  a  and  the  I/a 
part  is  added  each  year  to  estimated  growth  and  is  removed  in 
the  cut. 

It  also  shows  that  if  actual  growing  stock  is  deficient,  as  in 
badly  overcut  forest  properties,  the  quantity  (Ga  —  Gn)/a  becomes 
negative,  and  the  I/a  part  of  this  deficiency,  is  deducted  from  the 
estimated  growth,  the  cut  is  lessened  by  this  amount,  and  there  is  a 
saving  up  of  growing  stock  to  restore  it  to  a  proper  or  normal 
condition. 

To  supply  concrete  illustrations  for  these  methods  using  the 
Growing  Stock  as  a  gauge  in  -Regulating  the  Cut,  the  following 
premises  are  assumed  : 

i.    Actual  Conditions  of  the  Forest  to  be  Regulated. 

AREA  ACRES.         AGE  YEARS.  STOCKED. 

7O  TO  O-9 

130  2O  0.7 

60  30  0.8 

200  40  0.7 

150  50  0.7 

40  60  0.8 

650  acres  of  woods. 

*  In  most  books  the  Austrian  Formula  is  written  : 

Ga  —  Gn 
Cut  =  Growth  -f-  - 

which  would  assume  that  in  the  Austrian  form  it  was  prescribed  that  the 
surplus  must  be  spread  over  an  entire  rotation.  And  it  is  pointed  out  as  a 
special  distinction  of  Heyer's  formula  to  introduce  a  as  an  arbitrary  period 
in  place  of  r  or  the  rotation.  Von  Guttenberg  declares  this  to  be  an  error  in 
his  book  (p.  154)  and  his  reasons  are  convincing. 


YIEU>  PER 

CURRENT 

AVERAGE 

ACRE 

GROWTH 

YEARLY  GROWTH 

CUBIC  FT. 

CUBIC  FT. 

CUBIC  FT. 

460 

46 

46 

I2OO 

74 

00 

2250 

105 

75 

3400 

MS 

85 

4500 

no 

93 

5603 

no 

93 

152  FOREST  REGULATION 

2.    Yield  table.    Pine,  Site  II,  rotation  sixty  years,  fully  stocked. 
Thinnings  not  considered. 


AGE. 

10 
20 

30 
40 

5° 
60 

3.  The   Normal   Growing'   Stock  or  Growing   Stock  on   sixty 
acres  of  Normal  or  Regulated  Forest : 

a.  By  average  yearly  growth  of  ripe  timber  per  acre. 

By  Diagram  Fig.  7 :  r  =  60  y  ;  Yr  =  5600 ;  G  =  5600  X  60/2. 
Growing  Stock  =  168,000  cu.  ft.  on  60  acres,  or  2800  per  acre.* 

b.  Calculated    from   the   above   Yield   Table   by   the   formula 
n  (a  -f-  b  -|-  c  -f-  d  +  e  +  f/2)»  growing  stock  on  sixty  acres  is : 

a  =    460  c  =  2250  e  =  4500 

b  =  1 200  d  =  3400  f /2  =  2800 

On  60  acres:  14610  X  io—  146,100;  or  2450  per  acre. 

4.  Actual  Growing  Stock  on  this  Forest: 
a.    Calculated  by  Yield  Tables. 

AREA  AGE  STOCKED 

ACRES.  YEARS.  IN  O.I.  VOLUME  IN  CUBIC  FEET 

70  io  0.9  70  X  0.9  X    460  =  28900 

130  20  0.7  130  X  0-7  X  1200=  109200 

60  30  0.8  60  X  0.8  X  2250  =  108000 

2OO  40  O.7  2OO  X  0.7  X  34OO  =  476OOO 

1 50  50  0.7  1 50  X  0.7  X  45°°  =  472500 

40  60  0.8  40  X  0.8  X  5600=  179200 

Total  on  650  acres  =  1,373,800  cubic  feet. 

Per  acre  Ga.  or  Actual  Growing  Stock  =  2110  cubic  feet.| 

*The  usual  calculations  for  conditions  of  this   Growing  Stock   for   fall 
and  spring  are  left  but  of  consideration. 

$  All  figures  rounded  off  in  these  problems. 


A  SAMPLE  CASK  153 

1>.    Calculated  by  Average  Yearly  Growth  of  Ripe  Timber. 

AREA  AGE  STOCKED 

ACRES.  YEARS.  .IN  O.I  VOLUME  IN  CUBIC  FEET. 

70  10  0.9  70  X  0.9  X  10  X  93  =  5&5o° 

130  20  0.7  130  X  0.7  X  20  X  93  =  169200 

60  30  0.8  60  X  0.8  X  30  X  93  =  134000 

200  40  0.7  200  X  0.7  X  40  X  93  =  520000 

1 50  50  0.7  1 50  X  0.7  X  5°  X  93  =  487000 

40  60  0.8  40  X  0.8  X  60  X  93  =  178200 

Total  650  acres  :  1 547900  cubic  feet. 

Ga.  Actual  Growing  Stock  per  acre :  2380  cubic  feet. 

c.    Comparing  Gn,  or  Normal  Growing  Stock  to  Ga  or  Actual 
Growing  Stock  : 

NORMAL  ACTUAL 

GROWING  STOCK   GROWING  STOCK 

PER  ACRE  PER  ACRE 

CUBIC  FEET.  CUBIC  FEET. 

Calculated  on  Average  yearly  Growth 

of  ripe  Timber  2800  =  Yr/2  2380 

Calculated  by  Yield  Tables  2450  2110 

5.    Normal  Current  Growth,  or  current  yearly  growth  on  sixty 
acres  of  regulated  forest. 

a.  Calculated  from  the  yield  of  the  sixty-year  old  stand,  the 
average  yearly  growth  of  ripe  timber,  the  Current  Growth  is 

Yr/r  =  5600/60  =  93  cu.  ft.  per  acre. 

b.  Calculated  from  Current  Growth  as  given  in  Yield  Table 
for  fully  stocked  land. 

AREA   ACRES.  AGE   YEARS.  VOLUME  IN  CUBIC  FEET. 

10  10  460 

10  20  740 

10  30  1050 

TO  4O  II5O 

10  50  I 100 

IO  60  IIOO 

Total  60  acres  5600 

Normal  Current  Growth  per  acre :  93  cubic  feet. 


154  FOREST  REGULATION 

6.  Actual  Current  Growth  per  acre  on  the  forest  here  con- 
sidered, is  as  follows : 

a.  Calculated  by  use  of  Yield  Table : 

AR£A  AGE  STOCKED 

ACRES.  YEARS.  IN  O.I.  VOLUME  IN  CUBIC  FEET. 

70  10  0.9  70  X  0.9  X  46  =  2890 

130  20  0.7  1 30  X  0.7  X  7°=  6730 

60  30  0.8  60  X  0.8  X  I05  =  5040 

200  40  0.7  200  X  0.7  x  115  =  16100 

150  50  0.7  150X0.7X110=11550 

40  60  0.8  40  X  0.8  X  no=  3520 
Total  for  650  acres,  45830. 

Actual  Current  Growth  per  acre :  70.5  cubic  feet. 

b.  Calculated  on  basis  of  Average  Yearly  Growth  of  Ripe  tim- 
ber per  acre : 

AREA  AGE 

ACRES.  YEARS.         STOCKED  VOLUME  IN  CUBIC  FEET. 

70       10  0.9  70  X  0.9  X  93  *==  555° 

130      20  0.7  1 3°  X  0.7.  X  93=  845° 

60      30  0.8  60  X  0.8  X  93  =  4460 

200      40  0.7  200  X  0.7  X  93  =  13100 

150      50  0.7  150  X  0.7  X  93  =  9750 

40      60  0.8  40  X  0.8  X  93  =  2980 

Total  650  acres  44290  cubic  feet,  or  68  cubic  feet  per  acre  of 
Actual  Current  Growth. 

7.  Comparison  of  Normal  Current  Growth  and  Actual  Current 
Growth : 

NORMAL  CURRENT      ACTUAL  CURRENT 
GROWTH.  GROWTH. 

Calculated  on  basis  of  Average 

Yearly  Growth  of  ripe  timber         93  cu.  ft.  68  cti.  ft. 

Calculated  on  basis  of  Current 

Growth  as  per  Yield  Table  93  cu.  ft.  70  cu.  ft. 

In  trying  to  regulate  the  cut  of  this  forest  by  the  Austrian- 
Heyer  Formula  we  have : 

Cut  =  Growth  +  (Ga  —  Gn)  /a. 


P.Y  AUSTRIAN   METHOD  155 

Actual  growth  is  calculated  (as  under  6-b,  see  above)  on  basis  of 
Average  Yearly  Growth  of  Ripe  timber,  in  this  case  68  cu.  ft.  per 
acre.  Actual  Growing  Stock  (Ga)  is  also  calculated  from  Average 
Growth  of  Ripe  timber  (as  in  4-b  of  preceding  tables)  and  is  2380 
cu.  ft.  per  acre.  Normal  Growing  Stock  per  acre  is  Yr/2  or  2800 
cu.  ft.  per  acre  (see  33  and  4c  above).  It  is  merely  necessary  now 
to  decide  on  a,  the  period  during  which  this  regulation  should  take 
place.  In  this  particular  case  there  is  not  a  surplus  of  Actual  Grow- 
ing Stock,  but  it  is  a  deficit  which  should  be  corrected  by  saving-  in 
the  cut.  The  large  area  of  twenty  year  old  and  of  forty  and  fifty 
year  old  stuff  and  the  fair  condition  of  these  stands  (stocking  7+) 
would  indicate  that  there  is  no  great  need  of  saving  heavily.  For 
this  reason  the  saving  up  is  spread  over  an  entire  rotation  and  it  is 
decided  to  make  a  —  r  in  this  case.  Using  the  above  data,  then,  the 

Cut  =  68  4-  ( 2380  —  2800)  /6o  =  68  -—  7  =  61  cu.  ft.  per -acre, 
and  for  the  forest  of  650  acres  the  Yearly  Cut  is  39,650  cu.  ft.  per 
year. 

The  Austrian  Method  or  Formula  was  not  an  invention  of  the 
forester,  but  of  an -office  man,  and  was  introduced  not  for  regulation 
but  for  valuation  of  forest  properties. 

It  does  not  presuppose  or  prescribe  any  particular  method  of 
silviculture,  division,  regularity  of  age  c'asses,  or  any  particular 
order  or  sequence  of  the  cut.  The  cut  may  be  made  at  any  point. 

But  this  method  does  not  forbid  forest  division  and  order  in  the 
work,  and  it  is  no  fault,  therefore,  of  this  method  that  such  improve- 
ments are  not  prescribed  in  any  particular  plan. 

It  can  be  applied  to  any  forest  and  under  any  conditions,  and 
is  particularly  well  suited  to  irregular  wild  woods  in  large  properties 
and  to  the  Selection  forest.  It  will  at  once  set  a  reasonable  cut, 
prevent  overcutting  and  work  in  the  directioti  of  order,  and  greater 
regularity,  not  only  of  Growing  Stock  in  Volume,  but  also  of  Age 
Classes.  Proof  of  the  value  of  this  method  is  given  by  the  city 
forests  of  Zurich  where  this  method  has  long  been  in  use,  is  pre- 
scribed officially  by  the  kanton  government,  and  has  led  to  perfect 
regulation  under  the  master  hand  of  Director  Meister.  In  these 
forests  in  1882"  the  period  a  of  the  formula  was  set  at  r  (rotation) 
or  ninety  years  for  Working  Section  I ;  at  forty  years  in  Working 
Section  II ;  and  only  twenty  years  in  Section  III  of  the  Sihlwald. 


156  FOREST  REGULATION 

The  fact  that  this  method,  like  all  volume  methods,  works  with 
estimated  quantities,  and  gauges  such  quantities  for  the  future  is 
not  nearly  as  serious  as  appears  at  first.  Just  as  in  farming,  average 
yield  per  acre  for  twenty  or  more  years  can  very  well  be  estimated 
and  is  relied  upon  in  setting  a  value  on  the  farm  and  its  business, 
so  it  can  be  relied  upon  in  forestry,  where  the  crop  is  far  more 
independent  of  the  seasonal  fluctuations  of  growth.  The  important 
point  here  is  not  that  estimates  be  accurate,  though  of  course  this  is 
desirable,  but  that  the  plan  is  followed  faithfully  and  that  the  prop- 
erty is  re-examined  and  the  plan  revised  at  regular  intervals  to  suit 
changed  conditions.  For  it  can  never  be  emphasized  too  much  that 
the  forest  is  a  living  body,  and  reproduction,  growth,  cut  and  decay 
bring  decided  changes  every  year,  so  that  no  plan  can  be  relied  upon 
for  any  length  of  time. 

In  applying  the  Austrian-Heyer  Formula  to  Wild  Woods  and 
to  Selection  forests,  actual  growth  and  Normal  Growing  Stock  are 
obtained  from  Yield  table  studies,  and  Actual  Growing  Stock  can 
only  be  obtained  by  cruising  the  property. 

That  this  method  or  formula  is  not  applicable  in  the  case  of  a 
small  forest  in  which  the  entire  growing  stock  is  unripe  young  stuff 
is  self  evident.  In  such  a  case  there  is  nothing  to  do  but  wait  until 
the  stuff  is  ripe  to  cut.  To  cite  such  cases  in  evidence  of  the 
deficiency  of  the  Austrian  Method  can  not  help  science  or  practice.. 

It  is  also  evident  that  in  the  case  of  large  wild  woods  properties 
some  errors  must  creep  in  wherever  large  bodies  of  old  defective 
stuff  can  not  be  sold.  In  such  cases  there  is  not  only  a  cut,  but  there 
is  also  a  natural  harvest  or  decay  which  needs  to  be  considered.  But 
such  difficulties  are  of  minor  importance  and  can  be  largely  elimin- 
ated by  separating  portions  of  the  property  which  have  no  market 
and  simply  treating  them,  temporarily,  as  separate  Working  Sec- 
tions not  yet  ready  for  Regulation  of  Cut. 

b.  Hundeshagen's  Method  and  Von  Mantel's  Modification 
of  this.  Hundeshagen  assumed  that  the  relation  of  Growth  (or 
Cut)  to  Growing  Stock  should  be  the  same  in  the  unregulated  forest 
as  in  the  regulated  one.  His  formula : 

Cut  in  ordinary  forest  /Growing  Stock  of  this  forest  =  Cut  in 
Regulated  Forest/Growing  Stock  in  Regulated  Forest,  or  Cut/Ga  = 
Yr/Gn  .*.  Cut  =  Ga  (Yr/Gn). 


BY  IJUNDESHAGEN  157 

Ga  is  based  on  actual  inspection  of  every  stand,  and  either  esti- 
mated by  cruising,  or  else  as  in  4a  of  above  tables,  by  ascertaining 
age  and  condition  of  stocking  and  then  computing  volume  by  yield 
tables.  ^ 

Gn  is  obtained  by  summation  of  Yield  table  as  done  in  3b  of 
.above  examples. 

Yr  is  the  stand  of  one  acre  r  years  old  as  per  yield  table. 

According  to  the  above  premises  the  cut  in  the  small  forest  there 
.assumed  would  be : 

Cut  =  2110  (5600/146000)  =  21 10  (1/26)  =  Ga  (Cut  on  r 
acres/Stock  on  r  acres)  =2110  (3.8%)  =80  cu.  ft.  per  acre. 

In  this  case  then  the  yearly  cut  would  take  80  cu.  ft.  per  acre  or 
650  X  80  =  52,000  cu.  ft.  in  all.  Von  Mantel  evidently  going  on 
the  assumption  that  a  little  more  or  less  in  the  estimate  would  not 
change  results  in  ordinary  cases  decided  to  use  Normal  Stock  as 
'Calculated  from  Yr  and  r,  i.  e.,  Yr  X  r/2  ;  in  our  case  5630  X  60/2= 
168,000  cu.  ft.  for  60  acres. 

In  this  way  the  formula  is  simplified  to: 

Cut  =  Ga  Yr/Gn  =  Ga  Yr/YrX.r/2  =  Ga  2/r 

which  merely  follows  out  logically  the  assumption  of  Hundeshagen ; 
and  is  based  on  the  fact  that  in  a  regulated  forest  the  growth  in  the 
forest  during  rotation  equals  twice  the  growing  stock  found  at  any 
time  on  the  land,  as  stated  under  Normal  forest. 

In  the  assumed  case  then  :   Cut  =•--  2Ga/r  or 

Cut  =  21 10  X  2/60  =  70  cu.  ft.  per  acre,  or  about  10  cu.  ft. 
less  than  by  the  regular  Hundeshagen  calculation. 

Yon  Mantel's  Modification  of  Hundeshagen's  formula  is  a  very 
useful  devise  to  start  the  regulation  on  large  wild  woods  properties. 
It  adapts  the  cut  to  the  actual  growing  stock  on  the  land,  whether 
this  is  in  excess  or  below  normal. 

In  large  properties  stocked  with  pure  stands  of  intolerants, 
Western  Yellow  Pine,  Lodge  Pole,  etc.,  where  the  stands  are  largely 
even  aged  and  where  some  of  the  Age  Classes  are  practically  want- 
ing, application  of  either  the  Austrian  or  Hundeshagen  Method 
needs  a  careful  consideration  of  actual  existing  conditions. 

What  has  been  said  with  regard  to  the  foregoing  methods 
^applies  here.  This  method  merely  estimates  the  proper  cut  to  make 


158  FOREST  REGULATION 

and  does  not  consider  other  provisions  of  the  plan.  But  this  fact 
does  not  prevent  a  proper  development  of  forest  division,  order  in 
cutting,  or  necessary  revisions  with  their  .surveys  and  estimates  of 
all  parts  of  the  forest. 

This  method  recommends  itself  by  simplicity,  is  adaptive,  and 
fully  competent  to  develop  a  well  regulated  forest.  Nevertheless, 
this  method  never  gained  favor  and  was  never  employed  by  any  of 
the  State  forest  Departments  so  that  it  stands  today  without  any 
important  results  or  experience,  and  merely  with  an  academic  his- 
tory in  text  books. 

c.  Combined  Methods.     Of   these  the   Combined   Allotment 
where  the  table  was  made  sufficiently  large  to  accommodate  columns 
for  areas  and  for  volumes  has  been  the  most  important.     Since  this, 
in  actual  practice  has  long  changed  to  the  Area  Allotment  with 
volume  as  a  check,  there  is  no  occasion  to  go  into  it  further.* 

d.  "Diameter  Limit"  as  a  Method  of  Regulation.     Diameter 
limit  has  been  recommended  and  applied  in  some  of  the  early  efforts 
in  forestry,  it  has  become  very  generally  known,  appealing,  as  it 
does,  to  the  man  in  the  woods.     Its  object  is  not  really  Regulation, 
but  merely  an  effort  to  preserve  the  forest  from  immediate  devas- 
tation. 

For  this  purpose  it  has  served  well,  at  least  in  a  few  cases,  and 
is  perfectly  suited  to  help  in  most  forests.  But  good  silviculture 
alone  condemns  any  rigid  application  of  diameter  limit  for  any  real 
forestry,  since  the  runt  or  small  tree  is  often  older  and  more  worth- 
less to  keep  in  the  woods.  If  this  runty  stuff  is  to  be  cut,  then  the 
enterprise  is  no  longer  based  on  diameter  limit.  As  a  means  of 
Regulation  of  Cut  it  fails  because  it  is  based  on  the  mistaken  assump- 
tion that  diameter  and  age  are  proportional,  an  assumption  always 
wrong  in  any  forest,  regardless  of  care,  and  wrong  to  an  extent  of 
30-50%,  i.  e.,  in  the  eighty  year  old  stand,  even  in  a  well  cared  for 
forest,  the  largest  tree  differs  from  the  smallest  tree  by  easily  30- 
50%  in  diameter.  Even  where  this  diameter  limit  is  used,  either  an 
area  regulation  or  a  volume  regulation  such  as  Von  Mantel's  should 
be  added. 


*  For  complete  list  of  the  many  methods  published  at  different  times,  see 
Recknagel,  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Working  Plans." 


APPLICATION  OF   METHODS  159 

In  the  Selection  Forest,  diameter  limit  is  used  to  assure,  ap- 
proximately, the  desired  rotation.  Here  the  assumption  is  that  the 
good  trees,  forming  the  harvest  part  of  the  cut,  (in  distinction  to 
stuff  cut  for  improvement  and  thinning)  are  of  a  certain  size  at  a 
particular  age,  an  assumption  amply  accurate  for  the  purpose  in 
hand. 

III.    Application  of  Methods  of  Regulation  of  Cut  in  the 
United  States. 

Regulation  of  the  Cut  in  amount  (Area  or  Volume)  is  very 
important  in  development  of  any  Forest  property  to  prevent  un- 
reasonable overcutting  which  could  defer  any  desired  regularity  of 
income  for  a  long  time  and  bring  permanent  injury  to  parts  of  a 
forest.  But  it  is  not  as  important  as  is  good  protection  and  silvicul- 
ture and  a  suitable  division  of  the  forest,  for  these  together  with 
any  degree  of  orderly  sequence  of  cutting  will  in  themselves  work 
in  the  direction  of  regularity  and  will  in  all  forest  properties  largely 
replace  Regulation  of  the  cut  and  necessity  for  special  measurements 
and  calculation,  just  as  they  have  done  in  parts  of  the  old  world.  In 
time  Regulation  must  simplify  itself  in  any  good  forest  into  the 
task  of  going  over  the  property  about  once  in  twenty  years,  and 
picking  out  the  stands  either  ripe  enough  to  cut,  or  stands  in  bad 
condition  and  therefore  in  need  of  cutting,  and  assigning  these  to 
the  next  twenty  years'  work,  area  indicated  by  the  rotation  adopted. 
If  this  is  100  years,  then  approximately  one-fifth  of  the  entire  forest 
should  be  assigned  to  a  period  of  twenty  years. 

But  in  the  present  beginning  stages  of  forestry,  such  simple  and 
satisfactory  procedure  is  not  possible.  More  than  75%  of  our  large 
forest  areas  are  not  even  accessible  and  assigning  an  area  here  to 
a  particular  time,  can  have  no  meaning.  For  this  and  other  reasons 
it  is  necessary  to  use  other  methods,  and  it  is  interesting  to  see  how 
these  may  apply  to  particular  forms  of  forest  and  conditions,  as 
they  now  exist  in  the  United  States.  The  following  suggestions  are 
general. 

i.    Regulation  in  the  Woodlot. 

It  may  seem  pedantic  to  speak  of  a  regulation  of  the  cut  in  a 
twenty  or  forty  acre  woodlot.  But  experience  in  the  woodlots  of 
our  country  shows  clearly  that  not  only  are  such  woodlots  suffering 


160  FOREST  REGULATION 

for  want  of  better  silviculture,  but  also  from  a  lack  of  orderly  cut- 
ting. Whether  hardwood  in  selection  forest,  coppice,  or  clear  cut 
and  planting,  perhaps  the  three  simplest  and  best  methods  for  or- 
dinary case,  such  a  woodlot  is  bound  to  gain  in  value  by  some 
regulation.  In  our  ordinary  hardwood  lot,  the  method  is  usually  a 
mixture  of  coppice  and  selection,  but  the  common  way  of  cutting  is 
to  overcut  at  the  edges,  and  neglect  to  cut  the  interior,  so  that  most 
of  them  appear  like  half  cleared  pastures  along  their  border,  devoid 
of  protection  against  wind  and  sun,  while  at  the  interior  there  remain 
old,  large  crowned,  usually  defective  trees  which  should  have  been 
removed  long  ago.  For  this  reason  growth  in  these  lots  is  small,  in 
spite  of  good  quality  of  site,  and  it  is  small  in  quality  as  well  as 
•volume. 

Simple  regulation  by  fixed  yearly  cut,  with  each  year's  cut 
marked  by  posts  is  satisfactory,  and  will,  if  properly  followed  lead 
to  better  and  larger  growth  and  assure  a  yearly  cut  of  value.  A 
forty  acre  lot.  in  selection  method  might  well  be  divided  into  ten 
four  acre  lots,  one  lot  to  be  cut  over  each  year.  The  amount  to 
take  out  should,  ordinarily,  not  exceed  one-fourth  of  the  total 
volume.  If  it  is  estimated  that  the  woodlot  has  thirty-six  cords  of 
material  per  acre,  all  told,  then  the  cut  should  take  about  nine  cords 
of  this.  This  nine  cords  should  be  made  up  of  old,  ripe  stuff  and 
defective  material.  If  there  is  quite  a  large  amount  of  this  old  and 
defective  stuff,  it  is  better  to  take  a  smaller  area,  cut  heavier  and 
plant  up  all  openings  made  by  removal  of  the  old  stuff. 

2.    Regulation  in  the  Large  Selection  Forest. 

a.  In  Level  Country.  The  assumption  here  is  a  forest  like 
those  of  the  Great  Lakes  Country  with  market  for  everything,  and 
simple  winter,  snow  and  ice-road  logging. 

Here  also  a  simple  Fixed  Yearly  Cut  Regulation  will  prove 
perfectly  satisfactory.  The  areas  in  such  a  case  need  not  be  marked 
on  the  gound,  it  is  sufficient  to  indicate  each  year's  cut  on  a  map  or 
plat  showing  the  property,  and  this  cut  may  very  well  follow  present 
logging  ways  of  cutting  by  forties.  A  volume  check  is  needed,  and 
if  a  twenty  year  return  and  120  year  rotation  is  decided  upon,  about 
30%  of  the  volume  of  the  growing  stock  may  be  taken.  In  such  a 
case,  the  first  cutting  over  of  the  property  should  not  adhere  too 
rigidly  to  the  volume  check,  but  leave  quite  as  much  freedom  to 


KICGL'I.ATLUX    IX    SKUvCTlOX  l6l 

silviculture  as  market  permits.  With  the  selection  method  to  fol- 
low, it  is  quite  immaterial  where  the  cut  begins,  whether  in  one  or 
several  places,  and  what  its  rate  of  progress  at  any  point.  Similarly 
it  is  permissible  to'  ignore  conditions  of  types  and  future  Working 
Sections  as  well  as  a  division  into  Cutting  Series. 

In  a  property  of  this  kind  simple  Regulation  by  Volume  will 
answer.  If  Von  Mantel's  formula  is  used  and  rotation  is  set  at  120 
years  and  period  of  return  at  twenty  years  the  formula  as  in  the 
above  case  provides  a  cut  of  about  30%  of  the  growing  stock  on 
every  acre  cut  over.  For  example:  rotation  120  years;  period  of 
return,  twenty  years ;  growing  stock  forty-five  cords  per  acre,  all 
told ;  area  of  forest  10,000  acres. 

The  formula : 

Yearly  Cut  ==G2/r-=2X  10,000  X  45/  120  —  7500  cords  per 
year. 

But  since  the  plan  calls  for  a  return  every  twenty  years,  this 
7500  cords  is  cut  from  1/20  of  the  area  or  from  about  500  acres.  In 
this  way  Regulation  though  really  by  volume,  at  once  involves  an 
area  consideration  and  takes  the  form  of  a  combined  method,  just 
as  in  the  above  case  where  regulation  started  with  fixed  yearly  cut, 
and  merely  used  Volume  as  a  check. 

If  in  the  foregoing  plan  a  definite  period  of  return  is  left 
out,  regulation  of  the  cut  merely  prescribes  that  it  take  7500  cords 
and  does  not  specify  that  this  come  from  500  acres,  but  permits  that 
a  heavier  or  a  lighter  cut  per  acre  be  made.  While  in  this  form  it 
becomes  strictly  volume  regulation,  yet  in  actual  practice  the  plan 
of  silviculture  also  sets  its  limitations  and  if  the  forest  is  fairly 
uniform,  the  forster  naturally  cuts  different  tracts  in  about  the  same 
way,  and  covers  nearly  the  same  area  each  year.  But  this  again 
leads  to  a  more  or  less  uniform  period  of  return  and  with  this  to  a 
combination  of  Volume  Regulation  and  Area  Regulation. 

With  a  forest  of  hardwoods  and  Hemlock  on  good  sites,  as  is 
here  considered,  the  question  arises :  should  not  this  good  site  be 
cleared  at  once  and  some  more  profitable  species  replace  the  hard- 
woods? Xo  doubt  this  is  true.  But  to  the  owner  of  10,000  or 
20,000  acres  this  would  mean  quite  a  sacrifice  in  growth  and  in 
valuable  young  growing  stock.  A  much  better  way  for  the  owner 
who  wishes  to  transform  this  Wild  Woods  into  a  paying  forest 


1 62  FOREST  REGULATION 

business,  is  to  cut  it  over  in  the  manner  outlined  above  and  plant 
some  Spruce  and  White  Pine  into  the  open  spots  each  spring  and 
merely  add  to  the  valuable  stuff,  rather  than  destroy  and  replace  it. 
On  areas  where  old  defective  stands  cover  practically  all  the  ground, 
and  where  little  of  value  is  left  after  logging,  the  land  should  at 
once  be  planted  to  better  species.  With  change  later  on,  from 
Selection  to  Clear  Cut,  Regulation  should  change  from  Fixed  Cut 
to  Area  Allotment. 

b.  Regulation  in  Large  Selection  Forest  in  Mountains.  In 
forests  like  those  of  the  White  Mountains,  Maine  and  the  Appa- 
lachians, logging  normally  starts  in  the  lower  valleys  and  proceeds 
up  the  valley  and  its  branches.  In  this  way  the  point  of  beginning 
and  the  order  of  progress  are  prescribed  by  topography.  Usually, 
too,  the  rate  of  progress  is  not  altogether  arbitrary,  and  in  cases 
where  the  timber  must  be  driven  on  small  streams,  it  is  distinctly 
limited. 

This  situation  is  often  complicated  by  the  fact  that  only  conifers 
can  be  marketed,  as  in  the  northeast  or  only  part  of  the  hardwoods, 
as  in  the  southern  mountains,  etc. 

Example :  area  30,000  acres ;  forest  of  spruce,  more  or  less 
mixed  with  hardwoods,  the  latter  not  yet  marketable ;  method : 
selection  with  a  rotation  about  120  years,  indicated  by  a  thrifty  ten 
inch  tree.  In  this  case  good  silviculture  must  endure,  at  least  for 
the  present,  a  very  unsatisfactory  situation  and  cut  the  species  to 
be  favored,  and  leave  the  very  species  to  be  restricted  in  possession 
of  the  ground.  Good  regulation,  too,  is  .violated,  since  more  than 
50%  of  what  is  ripe  and  in  need  of  cutting  must  be  left  on  the 
ground  for  lack  of  market  or  rather  of  roads. 

In  cases  of  this  kind  ordinary  logging  methods  select  each  year 
the  area  to  be  logged,  develop  on  this  area  the  necessary  roads  and 
go  ahead.  It  is  a  fixed  yearly  cut  without  a  plan  for  the  future. 
Regulation  here  needs  only  to  improve  on  this  method,  long  fol- 
lowed, prepare  a  proper  set  of  reliable  maps,  select  "fixed  yearly 
cuts"  on  the  map  first  and  in  the  field  afterward,  and  plan  these  cuts 
for  the  entire  property.  In  all  likelihood  this  plan  would  need 
modification  for  the  first  and  second  going  over  the  property,  but  it 
would  certainly  be  a  great  step  toward  an. orderly  development  of 
this  property  to  have  at  the  office  reliable  maps  and  a  definite  well 


REGULATION  OF  CUT  163 

based  plan,  and  in  all  cases  would  be  far  better  than  to  leave  this 
most  important  of  all  tasks  to  the  woods  foreman  who  happened  to 
be  on  the  job  that  particular  year. 

Volume  check  here  should  be  waived  and  the  matter  left  to 
good  silviculture.  In  pure  stands  of  Spruce  danger  from  windfall 
alone  demands  a  light  cut ;  in  hardwoods  the  cut  should  try  to  favor 
reproduction  of  Spruce  at  the  expense  of  hardwoods,  and  certainly 
leave  enough  Spruce  to  assure  this,  or  else  assist  artificially.  In  all 
cases,  if  the  selection  method  is  used,  the  cut  should  leave  a  fair 
stand  sufficiently  resistant  to  wind  and  snow  injury,  and  especially 
avoid  large  areas  cut  clear,  and  even  smaller  ones  (ten  acres  and 
over)  unless  these  can  at  once  be  re-stocked  by  planting. 

Properties  such  as  are  assumed  here  are  not  rare  today  ( 1914) 
and  it  is  surprising  how  large  an  amount  of  timber  still  is  left  to  die 
and  decay  in  the  woods  of  the  New  England  States,  simply  for  lack 
of  roads  and  railroad  facilities.  If  part  of  the  money  taken  from 
these  properties  were  put  back  for  their  improvement  it  would  be 
an  easy  matter  to  change  this  condition. 

3.    Regulation  in  the  Southern  Pinery. 

A  fine  climate  which  makes  even  lean  lands  excellent  forest 
sites  with  remarkable  growth  together  with  pure  stands  of  intoler- 
ants,  calls  for  the  Clear  Cut  Method  of  silviculture.  To  secure  best 
results  and  avoid  serious  and  avoidable  loss,  the  forest  should  be 
surveyed,  divided  preferably  on  the  United  States  survey  plan;  it 
should  be  carefully  examined  and  described  and  the  plan  should 
bring  and  keep  the  exact  status  of  every  forty  before  the  forester 
and  the  owner. 

This  is  done  better  by  the  plan  of  Area  Allotment  which  de- 
serves preference  and  in  time  will  undoubtedly  displace  any  other 
in  this  region.  In  the  beginning,  when  numerous  ripe  stands  can 
not  possibly  be  reached  during  the  first  "period"  of  twenty  years, 
these  ripe  stands  are  placed  in  the  plan  to  suit  conditions. 

On  properties  having  a  very  large  amount  of  overripe  stuff, 
usually  accompanied  by  great  masses  of  defective  material,  it  may 
prove  advantageous  to  cut  the  property  or  at  least  parts  of  it  over 
on  the  Selection  plan.  In  this  case  volume  check  may  well  be  left 
Out  and  the  degree  of  cutting  left  to  silviculture. 


164  FOREST  REGULATION 

In  these  properties  of  the  Southern  Pinery,  clanger  from  insects 
must  be  considered  and  may  require  immediate  attention  in  regulat- 
ing not  merely  the  cut  in  Yolnme  but  also  in  location,  i.  e.,  attend  to 
a  proper  distribution  of  the  Age  Classes,  or  stands  of  different  age, 
and  with  this  of  Cutting  Series.  For  it  is  just  in  these  forests  of 
rapid  growth  where  changes  in  conditions  come  fast  and  often,  and 
where  every  stand  must  be  in  position  for  independent  treatment. 

4.    Regulation  in  Lodge  Pole  Pine. 

Typical  case :  property  of  500,000  acres ;  Rocky  Mountain  coun- 
try, largely  plateau  and  large  slopes,  fairly  accessible.  Forest 
practically  pure  Lodge  Pole ;  at  higher  altitudes  a  timiher-line 
country  with  Engelman  Spruce,  often  mixed  with  Lodge  Pole,  pri- 
marily protective  forest.  Considerable  areas  of  bare,  grazing  lands. 
Market  is  good  for  railway  ties,  poor  for  lumber.  The  following 
conditions  hold : 

a.    Total  Area  :  500,000  acres. 

Area  in  woods  about  400,000  acres ;  rest  in  prairie  and  waste. 
Conditions  of  wood  lands  as  per  detail  cruise  by  forty  acre 
lots : 

1.  Cut-over  lands,  and  burns  practically  bare  now,  41,000  acres 
with  reproduction  expected  in  next  twenty  years. 

2.  "Jack  Pine'',  stuff  below  4"  d.  b.  h.  and  25   ft.  in  height 
142,000  acres. 

3.  Poles,  average  5"  d.  b.  h.  (4-6") — 6,000  acres. 

4.  Stands  of  Larger  Poles  6-10",  80-120  years,  old — none. 

5.  Merchantable  Timber  120-250  years  old — 194,000  acres. 

d.  Rotation  is  set  at  200  years,  (approximate  average  age  of 
mature  timber),  and  assumes  that  technical  rotation  continues  to  be 
based  on  size  required  for  ties.  On  this  basis  the  above  conditions 
may  be  stated  thus : 

PER  CENT      SHOULD  BE  IE 
OE  AREA.  REGULATED. 

Bare  areas  to  reproduce  in  next  20  years 10%  9% 

Age  Classes  I  and  II,  1-40  years  old  stuff 35%  i&% 

Age  Classes  III  and  IV,  40-80  year  old  stuff.  .  .   6%  18% 

Age  Classes  V  and  VI.  80-120  year  old  stuff.  .   o%  18% 

Age  Classes  VII  and  X,  120-200  years  or  older. 48%  36% 


REGULATION  IN  LODGE  POLE  165 

From  this  statement  it  is  evident  that  the  property  has  too 
much  bare  land  and  young1  stuff,  is  practically  without  middle  aged 
stock,  but  has  an  abundance  of  ripe  timber.  If  a  continuous  supply 
is  to  exist  here  Regulation  must  get  along  with  what  timber  there 
is  in  age  class  VII  and  older,  until  the  young  stuff  is  sufficiently 
large  to  cut.  The  probability  is  that  rotation  is  set  higher  by  about 
20-40  years  than  is  absolutely  necessary,  even  for  average  site. 

e.  Sites    were    not    differentiated    in   the    examination    of    the 
property. 

f.  Growing   Stock   of   merchantable  material   on   the    194,000 
acres  of  old  woods  is  estimated  at  3200  million  feet  b.  m.  over  10" 
d.  b.  h.  or  about  16,000  feet  b.  m.  per  acre.     Good  (fully  stocked) 
stands  on  average  site  run  25,000  feet  b.  m.    Volume  of  young  stock 
is  neglected  in  the  calculation. 

g.  Actual  average  growth  of  ripe  timber  is  set  at  16000/200  = 
80  ft.  b.  m.    Normal  average  growth  of  ripe  timber  at  25000/200  = 
125  ft.  b.  m.     Actual  Growing  stock  per  acre  is  3200  million  (ft.)/ 
400,000    (acres)  =8000  ft.      Normal   Growing   Stock   per  acre   is 
25000/2=  12500  ft. 

h.  Plan  of  Cutting,  i.  e.,  the  silvicultural  plan  is  to  cut  the  land 
over  by  the  selection  method,  taking  about  30-35%  of  the  stand  of 
any  one  acre,  the  rule  being  to  "leave  a  forest  cover."  Later  on, 
(within  50  years)  it  is  expected  that  the  Clear  Cut  system  with 
seeding  from  the  side  can  set  in. 

i.  Regulation,  for  the  present,  must  set  a  reasonable  Volume 
check,  i.  e.,  it  must  determine  the  amount  of  timber  which  may  safely 
be  cut  without  over-cut,  and  with  full  regard  for  the  conditions, 
particularly  irregularity  of  age  classes,  and  assure  a  sustained  yearly 
cut  from  the  property.  Several  methods  are  tried,  as  follows,  and 
their  results  compared. 

j.  Fixed  yearly  Cut,  modified.  To  apply  this  method,  the 
189,000  acres  of  bare  land  and  young  stuff  are  left  out  of  considera- 
tion for  the  present  since  no  cutting  can  be  done  on  these  lands. 
For  the  other  194,000  acres  the  plan  provides  for  a  40  year  return, 
a  yearly  cut  of  194,000/40  or  about  5000  acres,  and  silviculture 
indicates  a  cut  of  16000/3  or  about  5  M.  ft.  per  acre.  Total  Cut: 
5  M.  X  5000  (acres)  or  25  million  feet  b.  m.,  to  be  cut  wherever 


l66  FOREST  REGULATION 

timber  sales  can  be  made,  and  thus  the  particular  areas  to  be  decided 
upon  from  time  to  time.  It  is  expected  that  long  before  the  end 
of  forty  years,  the  property  is  again  examined  and  a  new  plan  is 
made  in  keeping  with  conditions  as  they  will  then  exist. 

k.    Hundeshagen's  Method  with  Von  Mantel's  modification. 

Here  the  Cut  =  2Ga /r. 

For  our  case  :  Cut  =  2  X  32oo  million  it/ 200  =  32  million  per  year. 
On  this  plan  the  present  supply  would  be  cut  in  TOO  years  and  at 
that  time  little  material  over  120  years  old  could  be  expected  to  exist 
on  this  property.  For  this  reason  the  thirty-two  million  must  be 
regarded  as  about  the  maximum  cut  allowable. 

1.    Austrian  Method,  or  Heyer's  Formula. 

Ga  —  Gn 

Cut  =  Growth  -I 

a. 

In  this  case:  Cut  = '80  +  (8000 —  12500)7200,  or  about:  80  — 
22  =  58  ft.  per  acre. 

For  the  property :  58  ><  400,000  —  23.2  million  feet. 

It  will  be  noticed  that,  in  spite  of  the  large  amount  of  old  stuff, 
actual  Growing  Stock  is  smaller  than  normal  Growing  Stock,  so  that 
it  is  not  a  surplus,  but  a  deficit  which  must  be  spread.  Since  there 
is  no.  special  reason  for  spreading  this  over  a  shorter  period,  it  is 
distributed  over  an  entire  rotation,  i.  e.,  a  is  made  equal  r. 

m.  Hufnagle's  Method  for  smaller  properties,  might  also  be 
used  here  with  some  modification.  He  prescribes  estimating  the 
volume  of  stuff  older  than  half  the  rotation  and  spreading  this 
volume  over  the  period,  i.  e.,  over  half  the  rotation.  In  our  case  this 
might  well  be  used  : 

Growing  stock  older  than  T/2r  — 3200  million  ft. 
Time  before  the  younger  stock  will  be  ready  for  the  axe  about  125 
years,  and  for  this  period  the  merchantable  tim'ber  should  be  made 
to  last.     Hence : 

Yearly  Cut  =  3200  million  ft/125  =  25.6  million  ft. 

n.  Good  silviculture  demands  that  as  far  as  possible  oldest  and 
most  defective  stands  should  be  cut  first.  But  on  a  property  of  this 
kind  such  requirement  must  often  be  disregarded  for  lack  of  op- 
portunity to  sell  the  material.  For  this  reason  the  cut  will  be 


RI'GUtATlON  IN  YIU,U)W  TINE;  167 

accompanied  for  some  time  by  a  large  amount  of  unavoidable  loss 
in  old  and  defective  stuff,  and  it  seems  advisable  to  keep  the  cut 
correspondingly  a  little  below  rather  than  above  that  worked  out 
by  the  above  calculations. 

o.  Whether,  in  this  plan  of  Regulation,  the  figure  of  twenty- 
five  million  per  year  or  thirty-two  million  is  used,  is  not  of  very 
great  consequence.  In  any  case  the  cut  should  follow  the  plan 
faithfully,  and  if  it  does,  there  is  little  danger  of  serious  overcut. 
But  this  plan  must  never  continue  longer  than  forty  years  without 
some  revision,  a  new  inventory,  a  new  study  of  the  situation. 

p.  When  once  the  larger  part  of  this  property  is  accessible  by 
roads  and  railways,  so  that  the  selection  method  can-  give  way  to 
clear  cutting,  regulation  may  well  divide  this  large  forest  into 
several  working  sections,  and  certainly  cut  out  the  timberline  country 
as  a  permanent  selection  forest.  Then  also,  regulation  of  accessible 
portions  should  change  from  any  one  of  the  above  forms  to  an  Area 
Allotment  based  on  the  forty  acre  tract  subdivision  of  the  forest. 
With  this,  there  must  also  come  development  of  well  planned  cutting 
series,  preferably  of  a  single  lot  in  level  country  and  on  easy  slopes, 
but  of  lots  to  fit  topography  in  all  steeper  and  more  broken  country. 
Injury  from  wind  and  snow  in  Lodge  Pole  as  well  as  great  danger 
from  fire  will  recommend  these  independent  stands. 

5.    Regulation  in  Western  Yellow  Pine. 

The  property  here  considered  had  about  the  following  condi- 
tions in  1912. 

a.  Area  :   Nearly  one  million  acres. 

Topography;  plateau  and  easy  slopes  prevail,  average  altitude 
4500. 

Site:  climate,  moderate;  rainfall  about  30".  Snow  deep,  over 
three  feet ;  100  days  sleighing;  summers  warm  and  dry.  Soil,  mostly 
deep,  pumice  sands,  quite  fertile. 

b.  Timber:  largely  in  even  age   (all-old)   stands;  much  over- 
ripe stuff  "spike  top."    Only  about  20,000  acres  of  young  stands  on 
lands,  cut  over  in  last  forty  years. 

Growth :  the  TOO  year  tree  is  normally  about  18"  d.  b.  h.  and 
100  feet  in  height  for  dominant  stuff.  Fully  stocked  mature  stands: 


1 68  FOREST  REGULATION 

40,000  feet  on  good  site,  and  estimated  30,000  feet  for  average  site. 
of  property.     Net  growth  is  zero,  probably  negative. 

c.  Preliminary  Cruise  only.     According  to  this,  the  property 
has  about  eleven  billion  feet  b.  m.  of  merchantable  stuff  or  about 
12,000  feet  average  per  acre,  over  fourteen  inches  d.  b.  h. ;  timber 
large,  5-6  logs  per  tree,  and  2.6  logs  per  M.  ft. ;  cuts  very  sound ;. 
timber  long  lived ;  natural  rotation  over  250  years. 

d.  Market  just  beginning  in  its  development.    Only  market  for 
saw  timber,  preferably  large  stuff.     Can  well  afford  to  take  as  little 
as  4  M.  ft.  per  acre,  i.  e.,  it  pays  to  log  for  this  amount. 

e.  Danger  from  insects,  bark  beetle  in  old  stuff  and  also  from 
fire ;  many  lightning  fires  here. 

f.  Plan   of  cutting  so   far:   Clear  Cut,   with   few   seed  trees; 
expect  to  bring  up  the  cut  to  over  one  hundred  million  feet  per  year 
within  five  years. 

g.  In   making  the  preliminary  plans   the   following  questions 
arose : 

1.  If  one  hundred  million  feet  are  cut  yearly  on  clear  cut  plan, 
it  will  take  over  8000  acres  per  year.     If  these  cuttings  range  them- 
selves side  by  side  twenty  years'  work  will  clear  a  solid  area  of  about 
ifio.ooo  acres,  which  will,  or  is  expected  to  grow  up  to  young  stands 
of  pine.     Such  an  area  of  young  pine  would  be  a  certain  loss  in  case 
of  fire. 

2.  If  one  hundred  million  feet  are  cut  in  this  way,  it  will  take 
over  100  years  to  cover  the  property.     In  this  time  a  great  deal  of 
the  more  remote  timber  will  have  died  and  become  a  total  loss.    Part 
of  this  loss  is  unavoidable,  but  may  be  lessened  by  a  more  speedy 
cutting  over  of  the  entire  property. 

h.    Suggested  Plan  of  Regulation  : 

T.  Cut  on  selection  plan  to  allow  free  hand  to  purchasers  to 
select  areas ;  cut  only  30-35%  of  total ;  cut  clear  only  in  exceptional 
cases  and  in  areas  no  larger  than  necessary  to  remove  clumps  of 
defective,  over  ripe  stuff  unable  to  hold  over  for  another  cut. 

2.  Raise  the  cut  as  fast  as  possible  to  that  indicated  by  the 
growth,  the  growing  stock  now  on  the  ground,  and  a  rotation  of 
120  years,  this  latter  assumed  long  enough  to  produce  saw  timber  of 
suitable  size. 


REGULATION  Ol"  CUT  169 

3.  l>ases  of  estimating  the  proper  cut. 
Aetna!  Growing  Stock : 

12.000  ft.  of  merchantable  size,  regular  cruise. 
4,000  ft.  of  non-merchantable  sizes  by  estimate  or  compari- 
son to  merchantable  stuff.* 
Total    16,000  ft.  b.  m. 

0      ,    30,000  ft.  , 

Normal  Growing  btock  —  15,000  ft.  b.  m. 

2 

16,000  (ft.) 

Actual  Growth  = - : — :  =  T^  ft.  per  acre  and  vear. 

1 20  (rotation) 

4.  Von  Mantel's  formula. 
Cut  =  2G/r. 

2  X  IT, ooo  million 

In  our  case:   Cut—  =  about  180  million. 

120 

5.  Regulation  by  the  Austrian  Method. 

Ga  —  Gn 


Cut :   Growth  -J- 


1 6000  —  1 5000 
In  this  case  :   Cut  =  133  -|- j— '.=  153  ft.  per  acre,  or 

153  million  ft.  all  told. 

Denominator  a  is  made  only  fifty  years  because  there  is  no  large 
gap  in  age  classes  here  as  in  the  Lodge  Pole  case  cited  before,  and 
fifty  years  seemed  quite  sufficient  to  spread  the  small  surplus,  es- 
pecially in  view  of  the  fact  that  a  considerable  amount  of  large 
select  stuff  is  rapidly  becoming  spike  top  and  "going  back." 

6.  Modified  Fixed  Yearly  Cut.  Since  it  appears  desirable  to 
cut  on  selection  plan  and  cut  the  property  over  as  rapidly'  as  pos- 
sible to  avoid  loss  of  large,  old  stuff,  the  attempt  is  made  to  cut  over 
in  twenty-five  years,  or  about  40,000  acres  per  year. 

Taking  not  over  30%  of  total,  about  4.5  M.  ft.  per  acre  the  cut 
per  year  is:  4.5  M.  X  40,000=  180  million  ft.  ""Here,  as  in  the 

*  Calculation  of  growth  and  growing  stock  in  feet  board  measure  always 
involves  a  certain  apparent  fallacy.  In  speaking  of  the  average  growth  of 
ripe  timber  per  acre,  the  stand  10,  or  20  years  old  is  also  included,  though',  of 
course,  there  is  no  material  here  as  yet  to  make  any  sawed  stuff  of  any  kind. 


170  FOREST  REGULATION 

Lodge  Pole  case,  it  is  not  possible  to  plan  the  fixed  yearly  cut  for  the 
whole  twenty-five  year  period.  Selection  of  areas  and  order  of  their 
cutting  are  determined  by  the  purchasers,  more  than  by  the  forester. 
But  the  plan  is  now  clear,  the  forester  knows  that  he  should  make 
efforts  to  bring  up  the  cut  to  40,000  acres  per  year,  cut  on  selection 
plan,  take  about  a  third  of  the  stuff  and  sell  about  180  million  feet. 
It  is  a  safe  plan  to  follow,  it  has  a  basis  in  the  Growing  stock  and 
growth  of  the  forest  as  determined  by  species  and  site,  and  as  meas- 
ured and  known. 

i.  On  this  property  of  Western  Yellow  Pine  with  its  good 
sites  and  rapid  growth  silviculture  will  probably  abandon  the  Selec- 
tion Method  after  the  first  cutting  over.  In  this  case,  by  that  time 
there  should  be  a  complete  division  of  the  forest  on  the  ground  and  a 
reliable  inventory  so  that  Regulation  can  at  once  go  to  a  regular 
Area  Allotment.  Here  again,  it  is  desirable  if  not  necessary,  that  the 
large  property  be  divided  into  several  Working  Sections,  merely  by 
reason  of  size.  A  million  acre  forest  will  prove  unwieldly  as  soon 
as  the  markets  make  good  forestry,  in  keeping  with  species  and 
sites,  a  practical  enterprise. 

The  foregoing  Avill  suffice  to  illustrate  what  is  attempted  in 
Regulation  of  the  cut,  how  the  methods  apply,  and  the  good  that  is 
accomplished.  It  is  clear  that  in  our  large  Wild  Woods  properties 
it  is  not  a  matter  of  nice  accuracy,  Regulation  can  only  secure  a 
fairly  reasonable  figure,  safely  based  on  actual  conditions  of  the 
forest  and  applicable  under  present  conditions  of  market  and  means 
of  transportation. 

It  is  also  evident  that  Regulation  is  adapted  to  the  methods  of 
silviculture,  that  in  the  beginning  with  Selection  Method,  a  simple 
Area  Regulation,  a  Modified  Fixed  Yearly  Cut  with  Volume  check 
based  upon  Return  and  Rotation,  and  'calculated  by  Von  Mantel's 
formula  is  quite  satisfactory.  Also  that  simple  Volume  Regulation, 
whether  based  on  Von  Mantel  or  the  Austrian  Formula,  tends  to 
an  Area  Regulation  in  time.  As  stated  repeatedly,  Regulation  of  the 
cut  tends  toward  Area  Allotment,  full  or  restricted,  as  soon  as  a 
more  intensive  silviculture  is  made  possible  by  a  more  complete  and 
dependable  utilization.  In  all  cases  this  Regulation  of  the  Cut  in 
Volume  performs  only  one  part  of  Regulation  and  does  not.  replace 
Division  of  the  Forest  and  proper  distribution  of  Age  Classes. 


FOREST  IMPROVEMENTS  1 71 

G.  GENERAL  PLAN  OF  IMPROVEMENTS. 

In  every  forest  property  there  is  need  for  roads,  trails  and  tele- 
phones, and  in  many  cases  for  other  improvements  to  make  the 
forest  accessible  and  enable  various  kinds  of  work  to  be  done  with 
expedition  and  economy.  It  is  chiefly  Silviculture,  Protection,  and 
Utilization  which  make  necessary  these  improvements  and  plans  for 
them  must  take  into  consideration  these  three  most  important 
objects.  In  addition  to  these  greater  improvements  necessary  in  the 
raising  and  removal  of  timber,  or  the  principal  crop,  there  is  also 
need  of  suitable  housing  of  men,  of  special  means  to  assist  in  pro- 
tection, such  as  look-out  stations,  stores  of  supplies  and  tools ;  and 
on  many  of  the  large  forest  properties,  both  East  and  West,  im- 
provements are  needed  to  facilitate  various  lines  of  secondary 
utilization,  such  as  grazing,  utilization  of  resin,  tanbark,  seeds, 
maple  sap.  etc. 

Housing  of  men,  and  animals,  most  of  the  special  provisions 
for  protection  and  utilization  are  matters  of  detail  plan  and  belong 
more  in  the  sphere  of  forest  administration  than  that  of  regulation. 
In  a  new  country  and  on  very  large  properties,  however,  the  import- 
ance of  a  general  policy  concerning  improvements  is  sufficient  to 
necessitate  its  embodiment  in  every  complete  working  plan. 

a.  Roads  in  all  forest  properties  serve  three  functions:  they 
make  the  forest  accessible,  and  enable  transportation  of  material  and 
timber  into  and  out  of  the  forest.  They  connect  different  parts  of 
the  forest  itself  and  facilitate  work,  especially  protection.  They 
enable  general  travel  through  or  across  the  forest.  The  relative 
importance  of  these  three  functions  varies  with  locality  and  top- 
ography. In  the  Lakes  Region  or  the  South,  a  forest  of  one  town- 
ship, located  between  settlements,  makes  the  function  of  general 
travel  nearly  as  important  as  that  of  facilitating  logging  and  other 
work.  In  parts  of  the  Rockies,  Sierra  and  Cascades,  topography 
determines  the  location  of  every  important  road,  and  comparatively 
few  roads  can  serve  more  than  the  one  purpose  of  getting  in  and  out 
of  the  forest.  Between  these  extremes,  many  intermediate  situa- 
tions occur. 

i.  The  plan  and  development  of  the  road-system  is  usually 
dominated  by  utilization,  and  the  removal  of  timber  sets  definite 


172  FOREST  REGULATION 

requirements  as  to  location  of  road,  grade  and  construction.  But 
in  mountain  countries  a  portion  of  the  roads  may  be  free  from 
these  requirements,  and  may  serve  merely  for  general  travel  and  to 
connect  different  parts  of  the  forest.  It  is  a  common  thing  to  locate 
roads  in  the  Rockies  and  other  mountain  districts  on  top  of  ridges 
to  insure  easier  travel,  especially  less  trouble  with  snow,  though,  of 
course,  such  stretches  of  road  may  not  be  of  any  use  in  hauling 
logs.  In  new  districts,  where  present  methods  of  logging  do  not 
call  for  ordinary  roads,  but  must  resort  to  special  means,  railways, 
slides,  chutes,  flumes,  etc.,  and  where  the  expense  of  regular  road 
construction  is  great  and  but  little  justified  as  yet,  this  tendency 
toward  building  a  system  of  roads  primarily  for  general  travel  and 
accessibility  will  continue  and  influence  the  general  plan. 

In  level  and  ordinary  rolling  country  the  roads  should  be  plan- 
ned for  effective  and  economic  utilization. 

2.  In  the  general  plan  of  development  of  a  system  of  roads  in 
a  new  district  there  is  a  choice  of  procedure.     We  may  adopt  a 
general   policy   regarding  the   rate   of   development   of   roads,   and 
general  rules  for  detail  location,  grade  and  construction  and  then 
build  as  we  need.     Or  else,  we  may  plan  a  definite  system  based  on 
reliable  maps,  studied  in  the  field,  and  finally  located  on  a  special 
''road  map"  as   "proposed"   road  system,  to  be  built  as  time  and 
money  allow,  and  as  necessity  arises. 

This  latter  method  will  prove  best.  The  development  of  roads 
piece-meal  and  haphazard,  building  wherever  there  seems  need  for 
it,  and  adding  without  plan,  has  cost  millions  in  the  old  world,  \vhere 
hundreds  of  miles  of  highways  have  been  abandoned,  and  relocated, 
and  it  has  cost  millions  in  our  country,  in  railway  development  alone. 

That  the  making  of  this  general  plan  is  important  and  should 
fall  to  competent,  experienced  men  is  self  evident.  Mistakes  in  this 
work  are  costly  and  in  most  cases  later  changes  are  made  reluctantly. 

3.  To  plan  a  road  system  with  a  view  to  serving  also  in  proper 
division  of  the  forest  is  adding  an  unnecessary  complication.     Divi- 
sion of  the  forest  should  and  naturally  will  use  the  roads  as  far  as 
convenient,  but  the   roads  have  their  own   definite   functions   and 
should  be  built  for  these  and  these  only. 

4  The  General  Plan  for  a  road  system  for  any  given  property 
naturally  must  depend  on  conditions  of  the  property  itself,  and  but 


ROADS    AND    TRAILS  173 

few  general  principles  can  be  laid  down  for  its  development.  On 
a  property  of  Michigan  cut  over  lands  with  practically  nothing  to 
haul,  uncertain  reproduction  and  slow  growth,  the  matter  of  roads 
may  well  be  deferred.  In  an  Adirondack  forest  park  where  money 
is  supplied  and  where  the  object  is  to  make  the  forest  accessible  for 
pleasure,  a  system  of  good  macadam  roads  is  appropriate  and  ad- 
visable ;  it  will  pay.  In  a  well  timbered  property  in  the  South  where 
logging  goes  per  railway,  a  set  of  fire  lines,  merely  kept  open  for 
accessibility  may  be  all  that  is  necessary  for  some  years.  Practically 
the  same  applies  in  a  large  part  of  our  western  mountain  forests. 

The  basis  for  a  road  system  is  profitable  use  ;  there  must  be 
something  to  haul  and  the  road  must  make  hauling  more  effective 
and  economical.  Generally  the  value  of  a  road  system  as  part  of 
development  of  a  forest  property  has  been  underrated.  And  this  is 
as  true  of  the  forests  of  the  old  world  as  of  our  own  country. 
Thousands  of -acres  of  forest  in  the  Tyrol,  in  the  Southern  Alps  of 
France  are,  today,  inaccessible  and  have  practically  no  income.  In 
the  Great  Lakes  District  conditions  for  years  have  been  such  that  the 
putting  back  on  the  land  of  one  dollar  per  acre  would  have  developed 
a  road  system,  and  with  it  a  forest  division  and  protection  and  closer 
utilization  which  would  have  made  these  forest  properties  into  well- 
paying  business  enterprises  and  would  have  changed  the  attitude 
of  the  people  toward  them,  and  resulted  in  more  satisfactory  taxation 
and  protection.  The  same  is  true  in  part  of  the  Southern  Pinery. 
Here  a  rapid  growth,  easy  and  cheap  logging  and  proximity  to 
market  are  sure  to  'develop  a  most  intensive  practice  with  regular 
thinnings  and  artificial  reproduction.  If  some  of  the  income  in  cut- 
ting the  virgin  stand  is  put  back  on  the  land  in  reproduction  and 
roads,  the  property  is  ready  for  continuous  intensive  work.  With- 
out this  development  of  the  roads,  there  is  either  long  delay  in 
proper  income  or  else  a  sudden  demand  for  large  sums  for  roads; 
both  unsatisfactory. 

The  same  principles  apply  everywhere ;  good  site,  rapid  growth 
and  fair  topography  will  justify  road-development;  poor,  cold  or 
dry  sites,  box  canyons,  rockslide  and  cliff  situations  for  long  dis- 
tances, necessarily  hinder.  In  more  remote  and  difficult  situations 
it  is  often  better  to  defer  building  roads  and  get  on  with  trails.  In 
this  case  it  is  of  value  to  locate  the  trail  at  once  on  a  wagon  road 
grade,  and  allow  the  trail  to  develop  into  a  road  if  need  be. 


174  FOREST  REGULATION 

5.  In  actual  location  of  roads  on  a  forest  property  topography 
rules ;  the  loaded  wagon  or  sleigh  should  not  go  uphill.    Valley  and 
ridge  in  the  mountains,  with  parallels  to  cut  large  slopes,  form  the 
chief  features  here ;  while  in  level  and  rolling  country  great  choice 
of  location  exists,  and  a  net  work  of  roads  may  be  suited  entirely 
to  the  needs  of  the  forest. 

The  grade  is  important,  the  worst  piece  in  the  road  is  a  measure 
of  its  usefulness.  Practicability  of  using  the  road  for  as  many  days 
each  year  as  possible,  and  ease  of  maintenance  are  matters  for  the 
general  plan  to  consider. 

6.  Here  also  should  be  mentioned  the  matter  of  co-operation 
between  the  owner  of  the  forest  and  local  authorities,  neighboring 
owners  of  forest  lands,  mining  companies  and  other  people  interested 
in  the  highways  of  the  district.    The  possibility  of  creating  favorable 
public  sentiment  by  means  of  road-construction  is  worthy  of  con- 
sideration and  liberal  treatment. 

b.  Trails  are  an  improvement  required  primarily  in  mountain 
countries  where  they  replace  the  road  for  travel  on  foot  and  horse. 
But  with  forest  division,  trails  along  division  lines  of  lots  and  sub- 
lots,  etc.,  the  foot-path  or  trail  is  likely  to  gain  importance  even  in 
level  country.     In  the  case  of  trails  as  with  roads  the  preparation  of 
a  general  plan  based  on  maps  deserves  preference  over  the  build-as- 
you-need,  haphazard  way  of  developing  the  system. 

As  stated  before  many  trails  may  as  well  be  located  on  regular 
wagon  road  grade  and  bridge  over  to  the  more  satisfactory  and 
permanent  form  of  communication. 

c.  The  Telephone  in  forestry  is  an  innovation;  it  is  just  be- 
ginning to  find  its  way  into  the  European  forest  and  is  much  less 
used  there  than  in  the  United  States.     It  is  helpful  in  all  kinds  of 
work,  but  is  especially  needed  in  fire  protection.     Like  trail  and 
road  it  costs  considerable  money  to  build  and  costs  every  year  for 
maintenance  through  decay  of  poles,  breakage  of  wire,  etc.     Being 
most  needed  in  protection,  it  is  this  line  of  work  which  dominates 
the  planning  of  a  satisfactory  system  of  lines,  and  urges  their  con- 
struction, almost  regardless  of  the  general  development  or  condition 
of  the  property.    As  with  trails  and  roads,  there  should  be  a  general 
plan,  in  which  connection  of  different  parts  of  the  forest  (ranger 
stations)  with  each  other  and  with  headquarters  are  most  important. 


FOREST  IMPROVEMENTS  175 

cl.  Houses,  barns,  and  pastures  needed  in  the  care  of  the  forest 
property  ;  look-out  towers  or  special  improvements  for  protection, 
and  the  building  of  fences  in  grazing  administration  are  usually 
provided  as  development  of  the  property  requires.  For  this  reason 
the  general  plan  can  do  little  beyond  stating  the  policy  to  be  pursued. 
Questions  here  to  discuss  and  answer  may  be  as  follows :  should 
permanent  headquarters  be  built,  or  should  men  be  merely  camped 
in  tents,  etc. ;  do  the  conditions  of  topography  warrant  and  demand 
permanent  look-out  towers  with  regular  man  and  telephone  or  is  it 
enough  to  build  trails  to  certain  high  points  and  require  the  local 
patrol  to  visit  these?  Is  the  grazing  .on  this  property  important 
enough  to  warrant  any  improvements  and  development,  or  is  it  to 
be  treated  as  temporary,  and  discouraged  and  discontinued  as  soon 
as  possible?  If  grazing  is  to  be  permanent  and  valuable,  should 
pastures,  drift  fences,  corrals,  etc.,  be  built  and  should  this  be  left  to 
stockman  or  owner  of  forest?  etc. 

Most  of  these  improvements  for  administration  and  secondary 
utilization  are  not  expensive,  a  mistake  is  not  serious,  and  is  readily 
remedied.  Whether  a  ranger  station  is  placed  at  the  best  possible 
place  or  not,  is  not  serious,  the  whole  affair  only  costs  a  few  hun- 
dred, and  can  be  replaced  anywhere  on  a  month's  notice. 


H.    PLANS  OF  UTILIZATION. 

Regulation  of  the  Cut  merely  states  the  areas  to  cut  and  the 
amount  of  timber  produced  on  the  forest  which  may  be  taken  from 
this  every  year  without  danger  of  injury,  and  does  not  concern  itself 
with  methods  of  logging  or  utilization.  For  this  reason  a  separate 
plan  is  necessary. 

i.  Cutting  Timber.  In  the  German  forest  the  cutting  of  tim- 
ber in  State  forests  is  done  by  the  State  itself.  The  forester  makes 
contracts  with  individuals  or  groups,  to  cut,  or  cut  and  skid  to  the 
nearby  road  timber  on  a  given  area  at  a  price  agreed  upon,  always 
per  cubic  measure.  This  keeps  the  logging  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  forester,  and  he  .insists  on  methods  which  do  the  least  injury.  In 
the  United  States  the  ordinary  timber  owrner  is  also  lumberman  and 
logs- as  well  as  manufactures.  He  also  has  the  entire  situation  in  his 


176  FOREST  KECUE.ATIOX 

own  hands,  to  do  as  he  prefers.  But  there  are  also  a  large  number 
of  owners  who  sell  timber  on  the  stump.  In  these  cases  logger  and 
owner  of  the  forest  have  entirely  different  interests ;  the  former 
wants  cheap  logs  and  refuses  to  do  anything  which  costs  extra 
money ;  and  the  owner  would  like  to  have  the  logging  do  the  least 
injury  to  the  remaining  forest,  and  asks  for  considerable  extra  work 
and  outlay.  This  leads  to  elaborate  contracts,  necessitates  constant 
supervision  and  often  ends  in  difficulties.  What  the  development  is 
to  be  in  the  United  States  to  remedy  this  situation  is  not  certain, 
but  in  all  cases  where  a  reasonably  intensive  forest  management  is 
warranted,  sale  of  stumpag.e  should  be  avoided,  and  logs  or  wood 
delivered  at  the  road  by  someone  entirely  under  control  of  the 
forest  owner. 

This  introduces  necessity  of  planning  and  deciding  upon  general 
policy,  as  contract  logging,  or  logging  by  owner ;  proper  methods  of 
logging,  such  as  machine  logging,  loging  per  sleigh  haul,  all  year 
logging ;  and  logging  for  particular  goods,  railroad  ties,  mine  timber, 
saw  logs,  cordwood,  etc.  Thes  are  matters  of  great  importance  and 
deserve  attention  in  the  General  Plan.  Here  also  belong  considera- 
tions of  secondary  utilization,  such  as  grazing,  turpentine,  tanbark 
business,  etc. 

2.  Grazing.  Here  the  General  Plan  should  state  clearly  op- 
portunity for  grazing,  the  importance  of  this  to  owner  and  com- 
munity; effect  on  forest  and  general  methods  to  follow  if  grazing 
is  allowed. 

In  the  Hardwood  forest  of  Northern  Michigan  there  is  little 
opportunity  and  still  less  demand  and  grazing  need  not  be  con- 
sidered. In  the  Southern  Pinery  there  is  little  and  poor  feed, 
great  insect  pest,  poor  grazing,  but  there  is  considerable  demand, 
and  for  a  time  at  least,  this  must  be  reckoned  with.  In  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Districts  over  half  of  all  large  forest  properties  offer 
considerable  opportunity  for  grazing  and  generally  demand  for 
this  range  far  exceeds  supply.  Generally  it  is  true,  and  yet  rather 
unfortunate  that  opportunity  for  grazing  in  forest  properties  in- 
'  creases  with  dry  climate  and  high  elevation,  the  very  things  which 
make  silviculture  and  the  very  existence  of  the  forest  difficult. 

Since  the  effect  of  all  grazing  is  more  or  less  inimical  to  forest 
growth,  need  for  a  close  supervision  and  careful  regulation  increases, 


PLAN   OF  UTILIZATION  177 

usually,  with  opportunity  for  grazing.  All  kinds  of  stock  injure 
brush  and  tree  growth,  they  hurt  the  small  seedling  most,  trample 
and  tear  them  out ;  they  browse,  on  hardwoods  more  than  conifers ; 
they  rub,  bark,  and  break  all  kinds.  This  damage  is  overrated  by 
the  European  forester  who  has,  for  centuries,  had  to  fight  to  keep 
any  forest  cover  at  all  in  nearly  all  densely  populated  portions.  The 
danger  is  much  underrated  by  the  farmer  and  stockman  and  by 
most  people  in  the  United  States.  The  damage  is  greater  with  close 
herding  as  is  practiced  with  sheep,  and  in  general,  can  be  modified 
very  materially  by  proper  methods  of  handling. 

In  many  of  the  forest  properties  of  the  West,  there  exist  large 
areas  of  grass  and  brush  lands  which  have  been  in  this  non-forested 
condition  for  centuries  and  the  likelihood  is  that  difficulties  of  re- 
forestation, slow  growth,  and  remote  inaccessible  location  will  tend 
to  keep  these  areas  in  such  condition  for  many  years  more.  Here 
grazing  is  the  only  proper  use  of  the  lands.  In  many  cases  grazing 
assists  the  forester  by  the  removal  of  an  inflammable  grass  cover 
by  keeping  interested  people  scattered  over  these  areas  during  the 
danger  season,  and  by  tearing  up  the  top  soil  and  trampling  in  the 
seed  of  trees.  In  these  western  mountain  forests  grazing  is  generally 
restricted  to  summer  season,  average  about  100  days,  involves  mostly 
sheep  and  cattle,  to  a  small  extent  goats  and  horses,  the  latter  both 
destructive  stock.  Capacity  of  the  range  varies  within  wide  limits, 
averages  in  our  western  mountains  and  under  present  conditions 
about  one  head  of  sheep  to  four  acres  of  land  for  the  100  days,  or 
about  twenty-five  sheep  rations  per  acre.  Five  sheep  are  set  equiva- 
lent to  one  head  of  cattle. 

The  income  from  this  industry,  about  3-5  cts.  per  acre  and 
season,  is  very  small,  and  use  of  the  land  for  this  purpose  is  advis- 
able only  as  long  as  a  good  forest  can  not  be  established  or  main- 
tained. In  planning  for  the  proper  method  of  handling  this  business 
several  important  points  arise :  the  relation  of  forest  owner  and 
local  people  demands  that  neighboring  stock  owners  receive  prefer- 
ence, that  small  owners  be  treated  fairly  and  that  each  stockman  has 
assurance  of  his  range.  Safety  of  range  and  forest  demand  that 
each  man  be  allotted  his  own  separate  range,  that  he  be  given  the 
same  one  for  a  number  of  years,  so  that  he  becomes  interested  in  the 


178  FOREST  REGULATION 

maintenance  and  improvement  of  this  "range  and  can  properly  be 
held  responsible. 

The  General  Grazing  Plan  requires  at  least  a  preliminary  ex- 
amination of  property  and  usually  is  based  itself  on  the  conditions 
met  with  as  they  have  existed  for  years  past.  A  reliable  determina- 
tion of  carrying  capacity  is  difficult,  and  requires  thorough  scientific 
training ;  all  efforts  in  this  direction  by  the  stockman  have  furnished 
no  results,  his  practice  has  led  to  devastation  and  general  reduction 
of  range  capacity. 

3.  Resin  industry,  or  "Naval  Stores  Industry".  This  is  re- 
stricted in  the  United  States  to  the  Southern  Pinery,  and  primarily 
to  the  forests  of  Longleaf  Pine.  Practice  in  the  past  has  been  to 
"tap"  or  "bleed"  for  three  or  four  years,  usually  with  the  expecta- 
tion of  logging  the  timber  as  soon  thereafter  as  possible.  A  change 
from  the  destructive  "boxing"  to  the  "cup"  method,  permits  of 
greater  adaptation  and  a  prolonged  use  of  the  tree  for  this  purpose. 

The  future  of  this  industry  depends  on  cost  of  labor  and  the 
value  of  the  resin  products,  chiefly  turpentine,  and  this  in  turn  on  the 
possibility  or  probability  of  development  of  substitutes  for  turpen- 
tine and  rosin.  Assuming  the  value  of  resin  to  continue  the  question 
for  the  General  Plan  is  first :  should  the  forester  develop  special 
stands  of  timber  with  resin  as  the  important  product,  or  shall  resin 
remain  merely  a  biproduct  in  ordinary  forestry?  Again,  should 
bleeding  be  restricted  to  mature  stuff  and  be  continued  only  for  a 
few  years,  or  should  the  stands  be  specially  started  (wide  spacing) 
and  heavily  thinned  to  enable  use  of  part  of  the  thinnings,  and  also 
permit  of  a  prolonged  use  of  the  mature  stand  for  bleeding,  by 
proper  care  and  rotation  ? 

In  regulation,  in  development  of  proper  age  classes  and 
especially  in  distribution  of  age  classes,  or  proper  mixing  of  old 
and  young  stands  over  the  property  and  then  also  in  establishment 
of  independent  woods  or  cutting  series,  the  resin  industry  needs 
consideration,  for  stands  of  timber  in  process  of  tapping  are  in  an 
unsafe  condition  and  a  menace  to  surrounding  timber  on  account  of 
fire  as  well  as  insects,  notably  bark  beetles.  Regulation  should 
keep  each  stand  in  such  a  condition  that,  in  case  of  trouble,  it  may 
at  once  be  removed  and  trouble  checked  with  the  least  danger  to  the 
surrounding-  stands. 


PLAN  IN  RESIN  INDUSTRY  179 

Regulation  through  proper  age  classes  and  a  suitable  area  allot- 
ment should  provide  a  continuous  supply  of  resin,  in  keeping  with 
size  and  condition  of  forest.  If  bleeding  takes  only  the  stands  and 
trees  to  be  logged  in  the  near  future,  Regulation  for  the  Resin 
Industry  simply  runs  four  years  ahead  of  that  of  the  cut.  But  in 
this  case  a  definite  area  regulation  becomes  necessary,  stands  to  be 
tapped  must  be  picked  out  at  least  five  years  before  logging,  bled 
for  four  years  and  then  turned  over  to  logging.  An  area  allotment 
for  ten  years,  revised  every  five  years  will  answer  very  well ;  to 
prepare  for  long  periods  ahead  is  neither  necessary  nor  advisable, 
since  uncertainties  in  the  resin  industry,  dangers  from  fire,  insect  and 
windfall  are  very  great.  If  the  Selection  Method  is  used,  area  allot- 
ment takes  on  the  form  of  modified  fixed  yearly  cut  as  outlined 
above,  and  tapping  is  restricted  to  trees  to  be  marked  for  cutting. 
For  this  reason  resin  work  should  be  preceded  by  a  regular  mark- 
ing, which  will  avoid  confusion  when  the  trees  are  to  be  boxed  or 
gotten  ready  for  cup  and  gutter. 

As  regards  the  method  of  utilization  of  resin,  the  conditions 
resemble  those  met  in  timber  cutting ;  it  may  be  done  by  the  owner 
through  day  labor  or  contract,  or  else  it  may  be  sold  on  the  stump. 
Experience  would  indicate  that  this  latter  in  the  resin  industry  is 
even  less  satisfactory  and  more  dangerous  to  the  forest  than  is  the 
selling  of  timber  on  the  stump. 

4.  Tan  Bark  and  tan  extract  industry  allies  itself  so  closely 
with  the  cutting  of  timber  that  little  additional  need  be  said.  In 
many  cases,  however,  this  is  not  true  and  the  value  of  this  industry 
may  even  influence  choice  of  species  to  raise  and  method  of  silvicul- 
ture to  employ. 

In  Oak  coppice  the  entire  plan  is  often  based  on  harvest  of 
bark,  and  in  Chestnut  stands  utilization  of  the  timber  itself  is  modi- 
fied, the  wood  is  ground  and  tan  extract  supplies  the  chief  income. 

Other  secondary  forms  of  utilization  of  the  forest  property 
exist  in  different  localities,  and  under  various  circumstances.  Ordi- 
narily their  importance,  income,  permanence,  etc.,  determine  whether 
it  is  necessary  to  consider  them  in  the  General  Plan,  and  the  few 
illustrations  cited  will  indicate  their  treatment. 


i8o  FOREST  REGULATION 

I.  GENERAL  PLAN  OF  PROTECTION. 

Protection  against  fire  and  trespass  is  one  of  the  most  important 
tasks  of  the  forester.  As  soon  as  any  effort  at  forestry  or  even 
ordinary  care  of  property  is  attempted,  effective  fire-protection  de- 
mands attention.  And  it  must  be  a  protection  which  protects,  and 
protects  all  growth,  and  not  one  of  the  "light  burning"  type,  where 
reproduction  and  young  growth  is  wilfully  destroyed  by  fire  to 
save  a  few  saw  logs,  a  criminal  practice  occasionally  recommended 
in  our  country. * 

Protection  of  the  forest  against  insects,  which  in  the  last  fifteen 
years  has  cost  several  millions  in  the  United  States  has  always  been 
one  of  the  standing  duties  of  the  European  forester,  and  of  late 
even  the  fight  against  wood-destroying  fungi  has  been  added  to 
his  work.  But  both,  insects  and  fungi,  are  too  irregular  in  theii 
occurrence,  and  the  methods  to  combat  the  evil  have  not  been  suffi- 
ciently developed  to  warrant  making  these  lines  of  protection  part 
of  the  regular  program  or  Working  Plans,  and  the  matter  so  far 
has  been  left  to  special  effort  and  therefore  to  special  Plans. 

Since  patrol  sufficient  for  fire  protection  is  usually  ample  to 
avoid  all  serious  trespass  and  vandalism,  consideration  of  forest 
protection  in  the  General  Plan  narrows  down  to  measures  for  fire 
protection.  These  considerations  involve  a  study  of  the  property  to 
determine  the  degree  of  danger,  dangerous  areas,  stands  of  timber 
most  deserving  protection,  climate  and  fire  seasons,  sources  of  fire, 
human  element  in  this,  topography  and  accessibility  from  the  stand- 
point of  fire  protection,  the  methods  best  suited,  as  well  as  all  the 
available  means  to  prevent  and  combat  the  danger,  including  co- 
operation of  public  authorities,  neighboring  forest  owners  and  the 
people  of  the  district. 

The  degree  of  fire  danger  varies  within  wide  limits  hot  only 
for  different  parts  of  the  country  with  different  climates  and  forests, 
but  also  on  the  same  forest  property  itself.  Dense  stands  of  old 
timber  are  most  immune,  dense  stands  of  sapling  conifers  5-20  feet 
in  height  are  in  greatest  danger  of  taking  fire  and  are  almost  certain 

*  This  practice  is  old  in  the  Southern  Pinery;  has  always  formed  part  of 
the  protection  of  Turpentine  orchards,  and  was  carried  to  the  Western 
forests  and  recommended  particularly  for  the  forests  of  Yellow  Pine  and 
Sugar  Pine  by  some  of  the  prominent  lumbermen. 


PLAN  OF  FIRK  PROTECTION  l8l 


loss  and  total  loss  if  fire  once  starts.  Cut  over  lands  are  fire  traps, 
both  in  hardwoods  and  pinery  ;  hardwoods  are  not  as  easily 
destroyed  as  conifers,  but  the  leaf  mulch  under  hardwoods,  in  dry 
years,  is  often  worse  than  the  soil  cover  in  conifers,  etc. 

Forests  in  the  Lake  Region  and  Canada,  and  also  those  of  the 
Rockies  have  suffered  more  and  are  in  more  serious  danger  than 
those  of  the  South.  Dry  spells  in  early  spring  and  again  in  the 
fall  after  frost,  but  particularly  the  specially  dry  seasons  which  recur 
every  8-12  years  in  the  North  and  West  have  made  enormous  forest 
fires  possible,  where  literally  millions  of  acres  of  land  were  overrun. 
In  mountains,  particularly  the  Rockies  and  the  East  side  of  the 
Pacific  Ranges,  the  South  slope  (exposure  to  South)  is  dry,  brushy 
or  bare  and  fires  start  easily;  the  North  slope  is  well  wooded,  cool 
and  damp,  and  much  safer.  When  sufficiently  dry,  however,  it  is 
just  these  well  wooded  slopes  which  make  the  most  terrific  fires  and 
involve  the  greatest  money  loss,  a  fact  also  experienced  in  stands  of 
giant  timber  on  the  coast  where  usually  a  wet  climate  gives  the  im- 
pression of  great  safety. 

In  all  mountain  property,  effect  of  topography  must  be  con- 
sidered ;  fire  runs  rapidly  up  the  slope,  it  descends  slowly,  it  creates 
great  draft  in  all  narrow  valleys,  and  it  is  harder  to  get  to  and 
fight,  but  generally  easier  to  discover  in  mountains  than  in  flat  lands. 
The  temptation  is  to  protect  valuable  stands  and  neglect  the  less 
valuable.  This  is  commonly  a  mistake,  the  fires  gain  headway  in 
the  unprotected  woods  and  then  spread  irresistibly  over  the  valu- 
able forests  in  spite  of  all  effort  of.  protection. 

Means  of  fire  protection  in  the  forest  consist  chiefly  of  :  patrol, 
equipment  and  outside  help.  Since  the  proverbial  ounce  of  preven- 
tion is  the  chief  object,  Europe  has  always  relied  on  patrol,  together 
with  ample  paths  and  roads  to  make  and  keep  the  woods  accessible. 
In  the  United  States  patrol  has  generally  been  neglected  and  even 
at  present  there  are  practically  no  large  forest  properties  with  a 
patrol  in  any  sense  adequate  to  the  task.  European  experience  indi- 
cates that  an  area  of  over  5000  acres  to  one  man  on  foot  is  too  large, 
that  genrally  not  more  than  2000-3000  acres  should  be  watched  over 
by  one  guard. 

To  make  up  for  lack  of  help,  the  foresters  in  the  United  States 
have  developed  equipment,  particularly  telephone,  and  look-out 


1 82  FOREST  REGULATION 

stations,  etc.,  and  have  endeavored  to  supply  with  excellent  organiza- 
tion what  they  lack  in  numbers. 

Organization  of  outside  help  is  necessary  since  patrol  service 
is  never,  in  any  forest,  sufficient  to  fight  fires,  and  is  especially 
needed  in  their  regular  work  during  a  time  when  large  fires  are 
burning  on  parts  of  the  property.  This  organization  usually  con- 
sists of  definite  arrangements  with  stores,  etc.,  for  supplies,  pro- 
visions, tools,  and  for  help ;  and  also  involves  the  arrangement  of 
paid  for,  or  gratis  co-operation  with  the  people  of  the  district,  by 
which  they  agree  to  watch,  prevent  and  fight  fires,  whether  ordered 
or  not.  To  serve  its  purpose,  the  Plan  should  outline  an  organiza- 
tion such  that  any  fire  is  detected  within  one  hour  and  is  reached  not 
later  than  within  two  hours  from  the  time  smoke  rises  above  the 
timber.  For  some  years  lack  of  funds  may  prevent  a  full  develop- 
ment, but  the  plan  should  fully  recite  conditions  and  clearly  show 
what  is  needed,  and  then  make  the  best  distribution  of  the  means 
at  hand. 

A  common  mistake  which  has  been  made  in  forest  protection 
has  been  an  effort  to  economize  and  get  on  with  a  sort  of  half  pro- 
tection. In  the  Great  Lakes  Region  this  has  been  worse  than  no 
protection  at  all,  for  it  has  merely  led  to  contempt  on  one  side  and 
discouragement  on  the  other.  Ten  years  of  strict  protection  would 
have  made  further  protection  easy  and  much  less  expensive. 


K.    GENERAL  ESTIMATES  OF  INCOME  AND  EXPENSE. 

Estimates  both  of  income  and  expense  are  usually  stated  under 
the  different  topics  dealt  with  in  General  Plans  of  Utilization,  Silvi- 
culture, etc.,  and  are  stated  more  in  detail  in  Detail  Plans.  Never- 
theless it  is  of  value  to  bring  these  together  and  state  in  lump  sums 
for  the  various  important  items  what  incomes  and  expenses  may  be 
expected  each  year  for  at  least  a  few  years  in  advance,  and  supply 
this  important  information  to  the  owner,  as  well  as  a  guide  to  the 
forester.  The  figures  should  be  based  strictly  on  what  is  practical 
and  expected  to  be  done,  but  there  should  be,  in  new  enterprises,  a 
few  statements  foreshadowing  what  may  be  expected  in  the  near 
future,"  and  the  desirable,  as  well  as  the  actual  should  be  indicated. 


GENERAL  ESTIMATES  183 

In  using  this  general  estimate  and  apportionment  it  is  neces- 
sary to  avoid  too  great  rigidity,  for  it  is  to  be  expected  that  all 
estimates  will  be  modified  to  suit  changed  conditions. 

With  this  Estimate  of  Income  and  Expenses  may  well  go  a  plan 
of  organization  or  personnel  necessary  in  care  of  the  property,  and 
here  as  in  apportionment  of  funds,  there  should  be  a  statement  ex- 
plaining what  is  really  needed  for  best  results,  as  well  as  a  list  of 
men  which  may  actually  be  employed  under  present  conditions. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  evident  that  the  General  Plan  is  neces- 
sary for  any  intelligent,  business-like  work  on  a  large,  forest  prop- 
erty, and  that  this  General  Plan  or  Plans  require  considerable  infor- 
mation for  satisfactory  basis.  From  this  it  follows  that  different 
parts  of  the  Plan  will  differ  in  value,  and  that  different  parts  will  be 
worked  out  and  improved  more  or  less  independently,  but  also  that 
their  interdependence  is  so  great  that  a  careful  correlation  is  neces- 
sary. It  is  clear,  too,  that  in  our  new  enterprises,  where  forest 
administration  starts  with  very  little  exact  information  regarding 
the  property,  these  plans  are  only  tentative  at  first  and  require 
revisions  as  fast  as  information  is  gathered.  Experience  in  the 
United  States  shows  that,  at  first,  these  General  Plans  need  modi- 
fication every  year,  and  take  on  the  appearance  of  the  Detail  Plans 
to  be  discussed,  and  that  commonly  the  line  between  these  two 
practically  disappears.  This  condition  will  not  continue  ;  as  soon  as 
information  is  ample  and  reliable,  and  as  fast  as  conditions  of  mar- 
ket and  transportation  take  on  a  more  settled  form,  the  General 
Plans  become  more  and  more  definite  and  permanent. 


DETAIL  PLANS. 

The  Detail  Plans  take  up  various  lines  of  work  on  the  forest  as 
outlined  in  the  General  Plans,  and  also  various  less  important  tasks, 
coming  up  in  administration  of  the  property.  These  plans,  usually 
in  tabular  form,  state  exactly  what  is  to  be  done  during  the  coming 
year,  or  few  years,  enumerating  the  particular  forties  to  cut,  various 
sales  under  way,  men  holding  grazing,  etc.,  permits,  number  of 
stock  of  each.  etc.  These  plans  then  tell  the  forester  what  to  do 
now,  where  to  work,  and  in  silviculture,  etc.,  the  method  to  follow. 


1 84  FOREST  REGULATION 

These  Detail  Plans  differ  from  the  General  Plans ;  they  do  not  dis- 
cuss the  conditions  and  reasons  for  doing,  establish  no  policies, 
merely  outline  an  orderly  execution.  The  number  of  Detail  Plans 
is  not  fixed,  it  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  property  and  lines  of 
work  in  hand,  so  that  it  may  vary  from  year  to  year  even  on  the 
same  property.  The  following  will  suggest  treatment  of  the  topics 
in  these  plans : 

i.    Plan  of  Organization  of  Help. 

This  is  a  brief  tabular  statement,  practically  a  list  of  the  various 
men  employed  on  the  forest,  their  names,  date  of  employment,  salary, 
station,  and  principal  task.  Extra  help,  such  as  labor  in  building 
roads,  etc.,  is  not  enumerated.  The  summation  presents  cost  of 
regular  organization. 

2.    Detail  Plan  of  Protection. 

Applies  only  to  one  particular  year.  It  enumerates:  money 
allowed  for  protection;  name  and  number  of  regular  men  available, 
number  or  name  of  district  and  area  of  country  which  each  man 
covers,  extra  help  for  each  district,  where  stationed,  for  what  period 
employed,  and  at  what  salary. 

Telephone  lines  in  each  district,  location  of  these  and  connec- 
tions, look-out  stations  with  special  men,  connections  and  district 
covered ;  this  latter  best  stated  by  Protection  Plan  Map.  Number 
and  location  of  stores  or  "caches"  of  tools  and  other  supplies.  Name, 
location,  phone  number,  etc.,  of  persons  at  stores,  farms,  etc.,  with 
whom  arrangements  have  been  made  as  to  supplies,  transportation 
and  help ;  important  points  of  arrangements  made.  Name  and 
location  of  persons  engaged  to  assist  in  paid  or  unpaid  co-operation. 
A  map  as  part  of  Plan  of  Protection,  showing  topography,  roads, 
and  trails,  Ranger  and  Guard  stations,  look-outs  and  their  effective 
range ;  ranches,  hamlets  and  the  number  of  men  and  teams  available 
at  each. 

The  Detail  Plan  usually  recites  these  items  for  the  entire  forest 
and  also  for  each  protective  district.  It  should  also  add  the  import- 
ant points  in  instructions  so  that  each  person  knows  what  to  do,  to 
whom  to  report,  where  to  call  for  help.  In  these  instructions  the 
authority  to  incur  expenses  should  be  clearly  indicated. 


PLAN  OF  IMPROVEMENT 


The  above  outline  patterns  after  present  plans  on  some  of  the 
large  Western  mountain  forests  and  is  far  more  elaborate  than  is 
necessary  on  a  forest  property  of  ordinary  size  and  character. 

3.    Detail  Plan  of  Improvement. 

Here,  as  in  protection,  tabular  statement  should  be  accompanied 
by  an  Improvement  Map.  This  should  show  existing  and  planned 
improvement  in  different  colors ;  it  may  well  show  old  existing  im- 
provements, those  built  in  last  five  years ;  those  proposed  by  the 
General  Plan  and  those  suggested  for  the  coming  year. 

The  tabular  statement  states  the  apportionment  of  money,  total 
and  sum  for  each  class.  It  enumerates  each  project,  piece  of  road  or 
trail,  piece  of  telephone  line,  house,  barn,  bridge,  line  of  fence  and 
gives  location,  dimensions,  character  and  cost.  In  roads  and  trails, 
length,  width,  quality,  estimated  cost;  in  telephone  lines,  the  kind 
of  support,  weight  of  wire,  cost  of  material  and  of  labor,  etc. 

In  case  of  roads,  trails  and  telephone  lines  a  detail  or  special 
map,  indicating  location  of  all  points  of  special  difficulty,  rock, 
swamp,  canyon,  bridge,  etc.,  and  also  specifications  for  materials 
should  accompany  the  tabular  statement.  For  houses,  barns,  etc.,  a 
plan  and  set  of  specifications  with  estimate  for  cost  of  material  and 
labor  should  be  attached.  The  following  simple  suggestion  may 
serve  to  illustrate : 

DETAII,  PLAN  01?  IMPROVEMENTS  FOR  1914. 


Kind. 

Pro- 
ject 
No. 

Location. 

Dimensions 
Length,  etc. 

Description. 

Estimated    Cost. 

Mater- 
ial. 

Laboi 

Total. 

Road 

i 

Extension  up 
Little  Pinery. 

2.Y-2.    miles. 

Ordinary 
woods   road. 

$200 

$400 

$600 

Trail 

3 

New  trail  Law- 
son    to    Tower. 

7  miles. 

Cheap,  to  im- 
prove as  used 

'/5 

175 

250 

Trail 

7 

Up  Tongue 
River  Canyon. 

Repairs 
3  miles. 

Put  in  good 
shape. 

150 

200 

350 

Barn 

2 

Ranger's  House 
on  Tower. 

20x30 

logs. 

New  barn. 

TOO 

100 

200 

Tele- 
phone 

9 

Connect  Ran- 
ger House  with 
saw  mill. 

3  miles. 

New   line   on 
trees. 

50 

100 

150 

1 86  FOREST  REGULATION 

4.    Detail  Plan  of  Utilization  of  Timber. 

a.  In  the  European  Forest  where  the  forester  cuts  whatever 
timber  is  ripe,  according  to  his  plan,  and  harvests  his  crop  exactly 
as  the  farmer  does,  regardless  of  any  buyers  or  applicants,  the 
Detail  Plan  is  based  on  the  General  Plan  of  Regulating  the  Cut  and 
commonly  takes  about  the  following  form. 

DETAIL  PLAN  OF  CUTTING  FOR  YEARS  1914-1918. 


Loca- 
tion. 
Lot 
and 
Sub- 
lot. 

Species. 

Age. 
Years 

Area. 

Estimate  Amount. 

Silvicultural 
Directions 
and 
Remarks. 

3 
o 

<L> 

JS 

G 
cu 
43 

•Q 

OJ 

"o 

en 

c/3 

Conifers. 

Hardwoods. 

Total 

To-be 
cut. 

per 
acre. 

Cords 

Total 
Cords 

per 
acre. 
Cords 

Total 

Cords 

Acres 

Acres 

i.  a 

i/ 

47-  a 

31.  b 

27 

Pine- 
Spruce 

Spruce 

Beech 
Hwds. 

60 
90 

85 

H5 

all 
ages 

30 
70 

50 

00 
100 

10 

40 
50 

23 
100 

40 
80 

70 

400 
3200 

3501 

Cut  clear  and 
plant  at  once. 
Cut  clear, 
wait    one    year 
then    plant. 
Cut  clear, 
plant  at  once, 
5  yr.  trans- 
plants. 
Take  in  three 
cuts,   finish 
wihin  20  yrs. 
Too    dense, 
mark  heavily  in 
small  stuff. 

70 

10 

0     3 

^       (A 

O     rt 

£  * 

*o  1 

<u    p 

bfl   *" 

a   * 
•gi 
I? 

j_,     c3 

."I-S 
&  p 

ff\ 

1400 

1000 

Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 


A  plan,  like  the  above,  is  made  for  Thinnings,  because  in  any 
large  forest  property  it  is  impossible  to  keep  the  hundreds  of 
different  stands  in  one's  mind  and  some  of  them  would  surely  be 
overlooked  unless  the  forester  keeps  a  written  record. 

b.  In  the  United  States  especially  on  large  remote  properties 
where  all  utilization  of  timber  must  wait  until  there  is  application, 
or  market  for  this  timber,  the  above  plan  of  simply  declaring  certain 
areas  to  be  ripe  timber  and  assigning  them  for  cutting  during  next 
year,  or  next  five  years,  needs  modification.  In  these  cases  the 


PLAN    OF    UTILIZATION  187 

detail  plan  starts  with  the  ''timber  sale"  actually  consumated.  But 
in  these  cases,  too,  it  is  almost  a  necessity  to  have  a  convenient 
record  or  tabular  statement  which  shows  to  the  forester  and  owner 
at  any  time,  the  exact  status  of  utilization.  This  statement  takes 
the  place  of  the  above  form  of  detail  plan.  Where  quite  a  number 
of  sales  are  in  progress,  the  following  form  has  been  found  very 
convenient.  It  divides  the  information  into  three  parts  : 

a.  A  simple  and  brief  table  which  serves  as  the  Detail  Plan 
proper. 

b.  A  map  or  township  plat  on  which  the  sales  are  indicated, 
to  go  with  the  above  table. 

c.  A  separate  table  for  each  sale,  to  file  with  the  particular 
sale  case,  contract,  scale  records,  etc. 

The  tabular  plan  (a)  gives  the  following  information:  number 
of  sale,  name  and  address  of  purchaser,  location  of  timber,  amount 
of  timber,  kind  and  price  of  timber,  date  of  contract,  date  when 
closed,  amount  of  timber  cut  under  this  contract  and  value  of  timber. 
Where  a  sale  goes  over  to  another  year,  the  number  is  kept,  and  the 
record  shows  the  cut  and  income  for  the  year.  A  new  table  is  pre- 
pared each  year. 

The  sheet  to  go  with  the  sale  case  itself  may  well  take  approxi- 
mately the  old  form  of  the  detail  plan  of  cutting.  It  should  enumer- 
ate the  lots  or  areas  to  he  cut,  the  estimate  for  each,  the  method  of 
silviculture,  the  date  (month)  when  any  particular  tract  is  finished 
and  the  total  cut  from  this  tract. 

This  plan  of  cutting  in  a  particular  sale  can  take  about  the  fol- 
lowing form : 

Sale  No.  17. 

Name  of  purchaser :  John  Doe. 

Address:  Doeville. 

Amount  of  sales:  150  million  ft.  b.  m. 

Date  of  contract:  Sept.  10.  1913. 

Life  of  contract:  15  years. 

Silvicultural  method,  or  rules  for  marking  the  timber:  selection 
method  taking  only  stuff  over  16"  d.  b.  h.,  defective  or  sound ;  leav- 
ing generally  60%  of  total  volume  of  the  stand,  and  cutting  clear 


i88 


FOREST  REGULATION 


only  in  small  spots  (not  over  three  acres),  exceptions  to  this  in  cases 
of  stands  of  very  defective  stuff.  Where  special  treatment  is  indi- 
cated for  any  particular  lot,  it  is  so  stated.  Township.  .  .  . ,  range.  .  .  . 


Composition 

Vnl 

Locality. 

&   character   of 
principal  stand 
an  the   forty. 
Proportion  in 
ten-ths.     Only 

Age  Condi- 
tion of 
stands. 

Estimate 
1911 
all  over 
i6"d.b.h. 
M.ft.b.m. 

Cut 
fin- 
ished. 

V  Ol. 

actu- 
ally 

CUu 

M.  ft. 
b.  m. 

Actual  Mark- 
ing   recorded 
as  this  work 
progresses. 

Sec- 
tion. 

Forty.* 

stuff    over    10." 

8 

N.E.of 

s.w. 

Yellow   Pine  9, 
R.  F.  i. 

All  old. 

750 

Jan. 
1915 

980 

Clear    cut    with 
seed    trees,    5 

trees  per  acre. 

Cut   takes   60% 

8 

N.W. 
S.W. 

Y.  P.  6,  R.F.  2, 
Bals.i,   Ced.i. 

Largely  old, 
much  young 
Bals.  &  Ced. 

400 

Jan. 
1915 

220 

Y.   P.  only, 
leaves  good 
cover. 

Y.P.4,  Sug.P.2, 

Cut  all  mer. 

9 

N.W. 
N.W. 

R.F.  i  Bals.  2, 
Ced  i. 

Y.  P.  &  S.  P. 

old. 

300 

Mch. 
1915 

4OO 

Y.  P.  &  S.  P., 
leaves  50%  of 

cover. 

Marked  heavily, 

9 

N.W. 
S.W. 

Y.  P.  9,   Bals  i, 
some   pole   & 
y.  stuff. 

Mer.  Y.  P. 
old  stuff. 

900 

Mch. 
1915 

500 

much  spike 
top,  leaves 
very  open 

stand. 

Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

It  adds  materially  to  the  convenience  and  usefulness  of  these  plans 
to  provide  space  where  the  execution  of  the  work  may  be  noted  and 
combine  the  plan  of  work  with  record  of  execution. 

Since  these  special  plans  usually  develop  printed  forms  for 
their  record,  there  is  great  danger,  as  in  all  book-keeping,  to  try  to 
do  too  many  things  on  the  same  sheet.  In  a  field  sheet  this  is  a 
virtue,  in  a  plan  and  in  book-keeping  it  is  usually  a  fault.  There  is 
also  danger  of  developing  too  many  plans  and  records,  starting 
series  of  records  about  trivial  things.  Usually  these  unnecessary 
things  soon  become  irksome  and  are  abandoned  and  much  labor  and 
time  is  wasted. 


*  In  place  of  the  awkward  description  of :  N.  E.  %  of  S.  W.  %,  a  simple 
mbering  plan  will  prove  much  more  convenient  and  prevent  many  mistakes. 


DETAIL   PI,A>x7S  189 

5.    Detail  Plans  of  Secondary  Utilization. 

Merely  for  illustration  the  grazing  and  resin  industries  are 
mentioned. 

a.  Grazing  Plan  for  the  Year.    This  should  be  a  table  show- 
ing: 

Total  number  of  animals  that  will  be  allowed  on  the  property, 
preferably  by  the  two  kinds,  cattle  and  sheep. 

Then  a  list  of  persons  puchasing  range,  with  name,  address. 

Kind  and  number  of  head  of  stock,  district  and  area  assigned, 
number  actually  counted  in,  and  money  actually  received.  Time 
when  stock  may  enter  and  when  it  must  leave  the  range  may  be 
stated  at  top  of  table,  if  all  fare  alike,  otherwise  with  each  pur- 
chaser. Here  as  in  the  timber  sale,  a  right  hand  page  with  space 
to  record  the  experience  had  with  the  range  and  stock  of  each 
purchaser  will  easily  develop  a  valuable  record  for  use  in  future 
planning. 

A  map  indicating  areas  assigned  to  each  person  or  group  of 
persons,  and  also  the  driveways  for  stock  into  and  across  the 
property  together  with  all  improvements  important  in  grazing  is 
helpful.  This  outline  applies  only  to  very  large  properties  such  as 
the  National  Forests.  But  even  on  smaller  holdings  (10,000  acres) 
any  enterprise  like  grazing  needs  regulation  and  orderly  conduct 
if  it  is  to  continue  without  becoming  destructive  to  the  forest.  Mat- 
ters of  range  study  and  experiments  for  betterment  are  best  treated 
under  separate  head. 

b.  Resin  Industry.    In  a  forest  of  Longleaf  Pine,  under  ordi- 
nary conditions  the  Detail  Plan  of  utilizing  the  resin  consists  of 
a  list  of  the  lands  covered  by  "turpentine  orchards"  or  under  opera- 
tion, and  a  map  or  set  of  plats  presenting  the  same  information 
graphically.     It  is  convenient  to  separate  areas  bled  for  the  first 
time  (new  orchards),  those  bled  one,  two  and  three  years. 

The  General  Plan  should  decide  on  method  (box  or  cup)  and 
number  of  years  any  tree  is  to  be  tapped  and  whether  the  work  is 
to  be  restricted  to  a  few  years  preceding  the  logging  of  the  timber, 
etc.  It  also  assigns,  on  this  basis,  stands  fit  for  bleeding  for  the 
next  ten  years.  The  detail  plan  selects  and  lists  the  stands  to  be 
tapped  in  about  the  .following  manner : 


190 


FOREST  REGULATION 
"CROPS"  STARTED  1914. 


Crop 

Location. 

Area. 

No.  of 

Barrels  of  resin 

Conditions    and 

No. 

Seri- 

Lot 

Acres. 

Boxes 

experience. 

i 

2 

3 

4 

i 

80 

8000 

Dense,    small    tim- 

i 

7 

2 

80 

ber  .'.  small  yield 

-i 

83 

• 

Large  open  timber. 

2 

7 

4" 

60 

7300 

fire  destroyed 

150  boxes. 

Since  this  same  sheet  is  used  for  all  four  years  of  the  life  of  these 
"crops",  it  should  provide  ample  space.  With  the  old  method  of 
about  200  acres  per  crop  of  10,000  boxes  and  about  4000  acres  for 
one  still,  the  plans  for  even  a  large  property  (50,000  acres)  would 
not  be  many.  The  detail  plan  keeps  the  situation  clearly  before  the 
forester,  it  shows  the  execution  of  the  general  plan,  and  furnishes 
a  record  of  work  and  results.  Where  the  resin  is  sold  on  the  stump 
the  matter  of  detail  plans  is  more  complicated,  and  may  well  follow 
the  plans  suggested  under  timber  sales. 

6.    Detail  Plan  of  Planting  and  Nursery  Work. 

This  is  commonly  a  plan  for  several  years  (5),  and  in  most 
cases  it  is  convenient  to  keep  separate  the  planting,  nursery  work  and 
gathering  of  seed,  if  such  is  done. 

a.  The  Planting  Plan,  whatever  the  method  (seeding  or  plant- 
ing)  tabulates  or  lists  lands  to  be  covered,  the  method  used,  esti- 
mated cost  and  actual  cost  per  acre  and  total. 

b.  The  Nursery    Plan,   preferably   a   yearly   affair,   states   the 
amount  and  condition  of  stock  on  hand,  number  of  beds  to  be  started 
and  transplants  to  establish  in  order  to  supply  the  demands  set  by 
the  forest  (for  planting,  etc.). 

It  enumerates  changes  in  area,  and  equipment,  if  any,  and  the 
estimated  cost  of  material  and  labor  for  the  year. 

c.  Seed  Gathering  is  not  a  yearly  affair  except  with  very  large 
forest  owners  (state,  national  forests V     It  comes  with  seed  years, 
(every  3-5  years)   and  then  calls  for  special  efforts  and  with  this 
for  special  plans.     Usually  seed  is  bought  (in  the  cone,  etc.)   from 


DETAIL  PLANS  191 

individuals  and  the  enterprise  merely  calls  for  timely  advertisement, 
instruction,  arrangement  for  receiving  and  storing  and  after  that, 
of  extracting  the  seed,  cleaning  and  suitable  disposition,  shipment, 
and  storage. 

7.    Detail  Plans  of  Surveys,  and  Special  Studies. 

On  any  large  forest  property,  if  no  more  than  10,000  acres,  the 
task  of  examining  lands,  estimating  and  describing  stands,  studying 
gowth  and  habits  of  the  timber  on  the  land,  establishing  and  clearly 
marking  the  boundaries  of  the  property,  and  its  divisions  is  usually 
the  work  of  a  number  of  years.  Much  of  this  work  can  be  planned 
to  come  when  other  work  is  not  pressing  and  in  any  case  it  is  desir- 
able that  much  or  all  of  it  be  done  by  the  forester  in  charge,  since 
there  is  no  way  in  which  he  gains  the  necessary  familiarity  with  all 
parts  of  his  forest  in  a  shorter  time  or  better  way.  For  some  years 
on  all  forests  and  for  large  properties  always,  there  is  an  annual 
task  in  survey  work.  On  large  properties  this  work  deserves  a 
place  in  the  general  plans,  setting  forth  at  what  rate  the  forest 
should  be  covered  and  methods  to  be  used.  The  detail  plan,  usually 
a  yearly  plan,  enumerates  the  various  projects,  areas  to  be  estimated 
and  described,  lines  to  be  run  or  re-run,  cleared  and  monumented, 
and  detail  studies  for  volume-  and  yield-tables  to  be  made  during 
the  year.  This  is  put  in  a  tabular  form  with  estimates  of  cost  and 
a  right  hand  spjace  for  record  of  work  actually  performed,  results 
including  expenses  incurred.  A  map  showing  the  progress  of  this 
work  forms  an  important  part  of  this  plan. 

8.    Plans  for  Experimental  Work. 

On  very  large  properties  the  owners  will  often  find  it  to  their 
advantage  to  allow  a  reasonable  sum  to  carry  on  work  of  an  experi- 
mental order,  rather  than  to  trust  altogether  to  information  gathered 
elsewhere.  In  state  and  national  forests  the  reason  for  such  work 
is  evident,  and  here  it  receives  deserved  attention.  But  there  is 
nothing  which  needs  careful  planning,  definite  control  and  regular 
report  of  results  more  than  experimental  work.  Plans  for  such 
tasks  are  detailed  and  special,  they  develop  with  demand  for  the 
information.  The  experiments  now  under  way  on  the  National 


192  FOREST  REGULATION 

forests,  for  betterment  of  range,  study  of  growth  under  great 
variety  of  conditions,  etc.,  will  be  wrorth  millions  to  the  Nation,  but 
a  large  part  of  such  experimental  work  can  be  done  and  carried  to  a 
satisfactory  finish  only  through  strong1  organization,  with  \vell 
digested  plans  and  policies  and  with  intelligent,  watchful  supervision. 


RECORDS  OR  BOOKKEEPING. 

There  are  probably  few  kinds  of  relatively  simple  business 
where  a  systematic  record  is  more  necessary  than  it  is  in  the  care 
of  a  forest  property.  A  100  acre  stand  of  timber  is  quite  a  property 
in  itself  and  yet  in  a  forest  even  as  small  as  the  usual  German 
revier,  i.  e.,  one  of  about  10,000  acres,  it  is  only  i%  of  the  total  and 
may  be  a  rather  remote  and  very  much  hidden  i%  at  that.  In  a 
large  forest  such  as  a  National  Forest,  or  the  State  Forest  of  New 
York  or  Pennsylvania,  it  forms  often  not  more  than  1/50  of  one 
per  cent,  it  is  one  stand  in  5000 ;  the  forester  may  be  in  charge  of 
this  property  for  twenty  years  and  never  really  see  it,  to  go  over  it 
and  appreciate  its  condition.  The  stand  of  timber,  growth,  thrift 
or  lack  of  it,  the  work  done,  or  needed,  even  a  timber  cut ;  any  acci- 
dents, etc.,  etc.,  all  may  have  been  known  and  reported  by  the 
assistants  at  one  time  and  another,  but  unless  there  is  a  systematic 
record  kept,  all  these  are  forgotten,  filed  away  and  never  seen  again. 

This  stand  may  be  mature  and  need  cutting,  but  unless  there 
is  proper  record  and  plan,  it  may  remain  uncut  for  thirty  years,  and 
entail  great  loss  to  the  owner.  That  such  things  not  only  can  but 
do  happen,  was  brought  out  only  a  few  years  ago  in  the  controversies 
in  the  legislature  of  Bavaria  where  is  was  shown  that  millions  of 
feet  of  timber  were  left  to  stand  unused,  long  after  reaching  proper 
maturity,  simply  by  some  process  of  neglect,  where  the  responsible 
office  practically  forgot  their  existence  and  condition. 

The  fact  that  a  good  working  plan  was  made,  many  years  ago, 
does  not  help  this  situation ;  a  plan  in  itself  does  nothing,  it  takes 
systematic  execution  of  this  plan  and  in  this  execution  an  orderly 
record  is  a  necessity. 


BOOK-KEEPING  193 

The  record  or  book-keeping  in  a  forest  business  covers  three 
parts : 

Property. 

Work. 

Results. 

a.    Record  of  the  Property. 

On  every  forest  property  this  involves  the  following  items,  to 
which,  in  some  cases,  others  may  be  added. 

1.  List  of  Lands.     In  Districts  of  the  United  States  Public 
Lands  Survey  the  forty  acre  lot  forms  a  unit,  the  forties  are  ar- 
ranged by  sections,  township  and  range.    The  list  not  only  gives  the 
number  or  designation  but  also  the  actual  area  either  by  the  United 
vStates  records  or,  if  corrected,  by  last  accurate  survey,  since  not 
all  forties  are  forty  acre  lots.    To  this  may  be  added  whatever  other 
information  seems  desirable;  a  note  as  to   date  of  last  survey  is 
useful,  last  inspection  of  lines  and  monuments,  and  condition  of 
these. 

In  the  older  States  without  regular  United  States  survey  and 
then  also  in  mountains,  where  the  forester  makes  his  own  subdi- 
vision, the  forty  is  replaced  by  the  lot,  an  area  of  regular  or  irregu- 
lar shape  and  size,  and  these  lots  grouped  into  blocks  to  correspond 
to  the  sections  in  regular  survey,  and  therefore  preferably  not  over 
2000  acres  in  size.  Civic  township  and  county  and  even  state  may 
need  to  be  noted. 

This  List  of  Lands  is  accompanied  by  plats  based  on  the 
original-  survey ;  or  by  a  simple  "Land  Map"  showing  only  areas, 
lines,  their  direction  and  length. 

2.  List  of  Houses,  barns,  cabins,  camps,  mills  (small  ones,  if 
part  of  property),  also  fences,  etc.,  with  brief  description,  condition 
and  present  value.     This  list  is  accompanied  by  a  copy  of  the  im- 
provement map. 

3.  List  of  Personal   Property,   teams,   tools,   etc.     A   simple 
enumeration  giving  condition  and  value. 

4.  List  of  Roads,  trails,  telephone  lines;  name  or  number  of 
each,  location    (best  shown  on  map,  but  also  stated  here),  kind, 


194  FOREST  REGULATION 

length,  conditions,  and  present  value  per  mile  and  total.  This  also 
is  accompanied  by  an  improvement  map,  or  by  special  road  and 
trail  map. 

The  above  four  lists  are  corrected  to  date  once  every  year. 

5.  Detail  Report,  or  Detail  Description  of  the  forest  by  lots ; 
with  maps.     Each  lot  receives  at  least  two  sheets,  more  if  needed. 
On  one  of  these  sheets  is  recorded  the  full  description  of  the  lot, 
the  land  and  stand,  with  estimates,  etc.,  in  the  way  that  it  is  recorded 
in  the  field,  i.  e.,  same  topics,  same  number  of  columns.     On  the 
other  sheet  is  recorded  any  work,  expense  and  income  in  connection 
with  this  lot,  such  as  planting,  thinning,  etc.,  also  every  cut  of  timber, 
the  amount  and  value  taken,  and  in  this  way  an  accurate  history  of 
each  lot  is  established  and  maintained.     Every  log  cut  should  be 
scaled  as  coming  from  its  lot,  and  the  totals  of  the  scale  report 
should  be  recorded  on  this  lot  sheet.    If  any  part  of  the  lot  is  planted, 
seeded,  or  fail  parts  of  a  plantation  corrected,  the  year,  the  area, 
method,  cost  per  acre,  and  total  and  the  success  (end  of  year  or  two 
years)  is  noted. 

This  record,  on  a  large  property,  comprises  hundreds  of  sheets, 
and  is  arranged  by  sections  or  blocks,  and  townships,  for  con- 
venient use. 

The  description  part  of  this  record  in  an  older  forest  property 
is  revised  once  every  ten  or  twenty  years  ;  in  new  enterprises  it  is 
corrected  as  opportunity  offers ;  some  of  this  is  done  every  year. 
But  in  any  case  a  complete  working  over  of  the  property  should 
occur  at  certain  regular  times,  not  over  twenty  years  apart.  When 
that  is  done,  the  old  sheets  are  kept,  and  new  ones  added. 

6.  The  General  Report  of  the  Property.     This  compilation, 
explained  at  length  before,  is  filed  separately   for  convenient  use. 
Like  the  detail  description,  it  is  re-written  at  set  times,  but  in  new 
enterprises,  it  is  modified,  chiefly  enlarged,  every  year. 

The  manner  of  filing  these  documents  is  a  mechanical  affair  and 
is  done  to  suit.  Filing  flat,  with  sheets  standing  in  Manila  folders 
is  certainly  as  convenient  as  any  way  and  in  small  enterprises  the 
equipment  for  such  a  file  need  not  be  elaborate.  Since  the  gathering 
of  all  information  here  enumerated,  especially  the  detail  description 
of  the  forest,  costs  a  great  deal  of  money,  these  documents  should 
be  copied  and  safe  storage  provided. 


BOOK-KEEPING  195 

b.    Record  of  the  Work  and  Results. 

This  record  should  accomplish  the  following: 

i.  The  forester  should  know  every  day  what  work  is  being 
done  on  his  forest,  and  this  information  should  be  on  paper  as  well 
as  in  his  head. 

2...  He  should  be  able  to  report  at  set  times,  preferably  once  a 
month : 

What  work  has  been  accomplished. 
What  expense  has  been  incurred. 

How  much  material  has  been  disposed  of  and  what  was  the 
income. 

3.  The  record  should  be  brought  up  every  month  and  be  in  such 
a   form  that  the  owner,  inspector  or  any  other  interested  person 
could  see  at  any  time,  and  without  calculation,  what  was  done  dur- 
ing the  past  month,  or  months. 

4.  Records   should   show  that   the   policy,   general   and   detail 
plans  under  which  the  forester  works,  are  actually  and  faithfully 
being  followed. 

This  record  of  work  to  do  and  work  done  includes : 

1.  General  Plans,  as  above  outlined.     These  are  revised  at 
regular  intervals  (ten  or  twenty  years)  and  on  new  properties,  are 
amplified  every  year. 

2.  Detailed  Plans,  as  outlined  and  discussed.     These  are  re- 
vised every  year.     As  stated  above,  in  most  detail  plans,  such  as 
improvements,  planting,  utilization,  there  is  space  left  at  the  right 
for  the  record  of  the  work  and  results  actually  accomplished,  indi- 
cating to  what  extent  the  plan  has  been  followed  and  its  projects 
completed. 

3.  Daily  Record.     This  is  a  journal  of  work  with  estimated 
expenses,  it  states  each  day  what  the  different  men  are  doing,  what 
projects  are  under  way,  the  number  of  men  on  each,  and  probable 
expense.     This  daily  record  may  also  include  any  important  obser- 
vations, meeting  of  men,  important  conversations,  etc.,  although  as 
a  rule  these  observations,  etc.,  are  better  kept  in  a  small  private 
pocketbook-diary,  since  it  is  not  always  desirable  to  have  them  open 
for  inspection. 


196 


FOREST  REGULATION 


4.  Monthly  Records.  A  sheet  is  prepared  for  each  important 
line  of  work  and  arranged  in  such  manner  that  the  work  done  and 
expense  incurred  during  any  one  month  can  readily  be  added.  The 
following  will  illustrate  what  may  be  done  here ;  the  information  is 
usually  not  from  the  above  diary,  but  from  the  time  book  and 
records  of  the  men  in  charge  of  the  various  projects: 
IMPROVEMENT  WORK  1914. 


June. 

July 

Projects 

Mate- 

Mate- 

as per 
detail 
plan. 

Labor 

rial 
incl. 
board 

Work 
done. 

Labor 

rial 
incl. 
board 

Work 
done. 

Remarks 

days. 

$ 

days. 

$ 

$ 

$ 

No.  3.    New 

100 

350 

250 

1.4  m. 

165 

370 

281 

1.6  m. 

road,  3  mis. 

Fin. 

No.  7.  Cabin 

180 

400 

600 

hse. 

and  barn. 

and 

No.  12.   Tele- 

50 

no 

200 

5  mis. 

barn 

phoney  mis. 

No.  22.  15 
•mis.  of  trail. 

300 

600 

250 

15  mis 

Protection  work  is  best  recorded  on  two  separate  sheets,  the  one 
enumerating  labor,  material  and  expense  for  each  month,  the  other 
a  list  of  the  accidents  and  their  damage. 

RECORDS  OF  ACCIDENTS,  FIRES,  ETC.,  EOR  1914. 


No. 
of 
case. 

Date. 

Loca- 
.tion. 

Nature   of 
damage. 

Esti- 
mated 
area 
cov. 

Esti- 
mated 
dam. 

Extra  cost. 

Cause. 

Disposition 
of  case. 

Fire 
of 

other 

Labor. 

Mat. 

class 

acres 

$ 

days. 

$ 

$ 

i 

April 

2 

Sect.  7 
T2iN 

a 

_ 

2 

15 

__ 

•_ 

_ 

Unknown 

. 

R3W 

2 

May 

__5 

Sect.  9 
T2iN 
R3W 

Tres- 
pass 
in 

20 

25 

J.  Roe 

cut  ties 

Trespassser 
paid  double 
damage. 

tim. 

Reported  to 

3 

May 

10 

Sect. 
T-R 

c 



I/O 

SOD 

25 

50 

20 

Clear'g 
fires. 

owner    recom- 
mended prose- 

cution. 

RECORDS  OF   WORK 

PROTECTION  WORK  FOR  1914. 


197 


March. 

April. 

May 

Remarks 

Labor 

Mat. 

Labor 

Mat. 

Labor 

Mat. 

days. 

$ 

$ 

days. 

$ 

$ 

days. 

$ 

$ 

J.  Doe 
R.  Doe 
Ex.  men 

Teams 

12 

7 

24 
14 

25 
25 

10 

50 
5« 
20 

• 

30 

30 
80 

4 

60 
60 
160 

20 

40 

5 



WORK  IN  PLANTING  AND  SEEDING,  1914. 


Lot. 

Area. 
Acres. 

Condition 
of  land. 

Plan 
says. 

April. 

May. 

Success 
and 
date. 

Remarks. 

Acres. 

$ 

Acres. 

$ 

19 

100 

Rough,  burn, 
much  dead 
stuff.  N.  si. 
40°. 

New  plantation 
500  Tp.  per 
acre,  Spruce. 



100 

1  200 

May,  1915, 
80%  good 

Dry   summer, 
1914 

72 

60 

Dry,  even  S. 
slope  little 

New  pit.  looo, 
W.  Yel.  P. 

20 

I4O 

40 

250 

May,  1915, 
70%  alive 

Bad  site. 

brush. 

acre,  2  y.  seedl. 

WORK  IN  TIMBER  SALES,  1914. 


Sale 
No. 

January. 

February. 

March. 

April. 

May,  etc. 

Remarks. 

M.  ft. 
cut. 

$  paid. 

M.  ft. 
cut. 

$paid. 

M.  ft. 
cut. 

$paid. 

M.  ft. 
cut. 

$paid. 

M.  ft. 
cut. 

$paid. 

I 

_ 



35o 

4000 

1400 

17 

5I 









Made  trouble 

•? 

7O 

120 

1500 

25000 

about  brush 

4 

200 

10000 

I2OD 



1400 

1300 



For  mark- 
ing at  5.00 

50 

125 

_ 

300 

500 

per  day. 

Scaling  2.50 

100 

200 

ISO 

400 

350 

^>er  day. 

Total 

expenses  : 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  desirable  to  prorate  the  expenses  of 
marking,  scaling  and  other  expenses  connected  with  the  timber  sales. 

These  monthly  records  are  accompanied  by  records  or  correc- 
tions made  on  the  improvement  map,  timber  sale  plats,  etc.,  where 


198  FOREST  REGULATION 

the  progress  of  work  is  indicated  whenever  there  is  enough  finished 
to  justify  this  graphical  record. 

They  should  be  kept  for  a  number  of  years,  for  use  in  prepara- 
tion or  revision  of  future  plans. 

5.  As  stated  under  reords  of  the  property,  (the  detail  descrip- 
tion of  the  forest)  any  work  that  affects  the  land  or  the  stand  of  any 
lot  is  also  recorded  on  the  lot  sheet.     And  here  also  should  be 
recorded  any  cases  of  special  and  important  injury,   fire,  insects, 
snow,  windfall,  etc. 

6.  Timber  Sales  and  other  Cases  of  Disposal  of  Materials. 
These  cases  are  kept  as  separate  documents,  each  (in  case  of  timber 
sales)   involving  the  following: 

History  of  the  case,  on  separate  sheet,  noting  dates  of  applica- 
tion, contract,  etc. 

Application  and  report. 

Contract. 

Record  of  scale  reports  and  money  receipts. 

When  timber  cutting  is  going  on  and  scale  reports  come  in  each 
report  is  entered  on : 

a.  Record  of  scale  reports,  kept  with  sale  case. 

b.  On  lot  sheet  of  lot  from  which  the  timber  was  taken. 
Once  every  month  the  sum  of  these  scale  reports  is  taken  off  the 
records  of  scale  reports  of  each  sale  and  entered  on  the  monthly 
record  sheets. 

7.  Record  of  Expenses,  usually  in  three  parts : 

a.  Pay  roll,  either  timebook  with  space  for  date  when  time  is 
given  to  employee  or  when  time  is  sent  in,  or  else  timebook  and 
ledger,  with  account  for  each  man ;  this  latter  involves  much  extra 
work. 

b.  Bills  for  material  and  work.     These  bills  should  be  asked 
for  in  duplicates  and  their  treatment  is  about  as  follows :  on  receipt 
of  any  bill,  it  is  examined,  if  correct,  it  is  O.  Kd.  and  one  copy  is 
sent  to  headquarters  for  payment. 

Then  the  copy  retained  is  recorded  on  a  bill  sheet,  where  it 
receives  a  serial  number,  (a  new  series  each  year),  and  where  the 
following  points  are  noted  in  different  columns:  number  (serial), 
name  and  address  of  sender,  date  of  bill,  material  or  service  fur- 


BOOK-KEEPING  199 

nished  (not  in  detail,  for  each  bill  receives  only  one  line),  amount 
of  bill,  date  when  sent  to  head  office,  date  when  paid.  All  bills  are 
fastened  together  in  the  order  in  which  they  appear  on  the  bill  sheet. 

c.  Expenses  for  the  different  lines  of  work.  Here  is  brought 
together  once  a  month  the  summation  of  expenses  under  protection, 
planting,  utilization,  improvement,  etc.,  each  line  of  work  receiving 
its  own  column,  and  added  for  a  monthly  total.  This  compilation  is 
not  always  accurate,  some  parts  must  be  estimates,  •  but  it  should 
never  be  omitted. 

8.  Record  of  Incomes.  These  are  treated  like  the  expenses, 
the  incomes  for  wood,  grazing,  etc.,  recorded  in  different  columns, 
and  a  total  derived  for  each  month. 

Book-keeping  can  be  done  in  many  ways ;  the  above  is  merely  a 
suggestion  ;  it  is  a  plan  actually  used  for  several  years  and  found 
convenient  and  sufficient. 


SUPERVISION  AND  REVISION. 

The  best  of  plans  and  the  best  systems  of  records  can  not  pre- 
vent things  going  by  default,  through  incompetence  and  neglect. 
Care  of  the  forest,  as  stated  under  records,  is  especially  subject  to 
drift  into  a  slovenly  routine,  into  a  condition  of  neglect,  where  whole 
stands  are  practically  forgotten  with  great  money  loss  to  the  owner. 

For  this  reason  all  experienced  forest  owners  have  established 
two  remedies :  supervision,  usually  through  regular  report  and  in- 
spection, and  revision,  or  the  orderly  working  over  of  the  property 
and  bringing  to  date  of  all  information  and  plans. 

i.  Supervision.  For  an  ordinary  forest  property  the  follow- 
ing may  well  be  done : 

a.  Each  ranger  and  other  assistant  working  by  himself  should 
make  a  monthly  report  to  the  forester,  based  on  a  diary,  in  which  he 
notes  each  day  his  work  and  experience. 

b.  The  forester  should  report  every  month  to  the  owner,  or 
head  office.     This  report  is  based  on  his  monthly  record,  together 
with  the  monthly  reports  of  rangers  and  also  his  own  personal  obser- 
vations and  experience.     It  should  be  brief. 


200  FOREST  REGULATION 

c.  The  forester  makes  a  yearly  report   which  he  submits  to 
head  office  together  with  his  yearly  or  detail  plans.     This  report 
gives  the  yearly  totals  as  gleaned  from  the  records,  i.  e.,  totals  by 
the  different  lines  of  work,  and  grand  total  of  expenses  and  income. 
It  also  recites  all  important  experience  and  observation  of  the  year, 
which  has  bearing  on  his  work,  and  particularly  on  the  plans  he 
submits. 

d.  The  owner  or  his  representative,  on  large  properties  (state, 
national,  etc.)  a  special  inspector  should  regularly  visit  the  forester, 
examine  his  records  and  at  least  a  few  important  points  in  his  woods. 
If  he  is  a  regular  inspector  he  should  keep  in  mind  that  his  business 
is  not  to  find  fault,  but  to  help  to  promote  confidence,  and  harmony, 
to  keep  the  work  at  highest  efficiency  and  assure  the  forest  owner 
greatest  possible  success.     If  then  he  finds  that  a  forester  is  unable 
(or  unwilling)   to  do  his  task,  he  should  report  facts,  important, 
provable  facts  and  not  merely  opinions  prompted  by  prejudice  either 
favorable  or  otherwise. 

To  leave  a  forester  without  this  inspection,  without  visit  from, 
and  personal  contact  with  the  owner  or  his  representative,  is  never 
safe  and  is  not  even  fair  to  an  employee  working  under  the  condi- 
tions under  which  all  foresters  must  work.  In  this  connection  it 
may  be  well  to  state  that  the  usual  effort  of  control  by  "red  tape", 
as  it  is  commonly  invented  by  the  book-keeping  division  of  large 
enterprises,  is  never  really  a  control,  it  is  mere  hindrance.  There 
is  nothing  so  conducive  and  nothing  so  protective  to  the  development 
of  bad  and  even  crooked  work  as  is  an  over  abundance  of  red  tape. 
The  exposure  of  years  of  fraudulent  conduct  in  some  of  our  banks 
and  railway  systems,  the  most  generous  concerns  in  this  line  of 
would-be  control,  are  ample  proof. 

The  forester  is  a  busy  man;  he  is,  or  should  be  out  in  the 
weather  most  of  his  time  and  it  is  wise  to  keep  all  matters  of  book- 
keeping and  reports  and  correspondence  in  the  simplest,  most 
serviceable  form. 

2.  Revision.  As  stated  repeatedly,  the  conditions  on  a  forest 
property  are  extremely  complex,  they  are  constantly  changing,  not 
a  month,  or  even  a  week  passes  on  a  large  property  but  what  some 
trees  are  destroyed,  others  injured,  often  thousands  of  feet  of  tim- 
ber falling  in  a  single  storm.  A  heavy  snow,  or  an  ice  storm  breaks 


INSPECTION    AND    REVISION  2OI 

down  millions  of  twigs  and  branches,  hundreds  of  trees.  Each 
season  brings  its  growth  and  adds  thousands  of  cords  of  wood,  and 
allows  insect  and  fungus  to  multiply  and  destroy.  To  keep  properly 
informed,  plan  and  work  intelligently  with  such  an  enormous  crop, 
it  is  not  sufficient  to  make  an  examination  this  year,  prepare  a  plan 
and  expect  to  follow  it  indefinitely.  A  single,  intelligent  cutting 
over  of  a  hardwood  property  in  Northern  Michigan  would  change 
the  conditions  of  reproduction,  composition,  growth,  and  decay  so 
that  the  forest  would  hardly  resemble  the  old  wild  woods,  and  what 
seemed  true  and  advisable  before,  would  no  longer  be  so  after  a 
twenty  year  period.  These  facts  have  been  recognized  for  centuries, 
and  as  soon  as  income  from  the  forest  permitted  a  proper  care, 
these  facts  were  emphasized  and  the  care  of  the  forest  shaped  in 
keeping  with  their  importance.  "A  proper  division,  orderly  se- 
quence in  cutting,  and  frequent  revision  of  the  plan,  are  far  more 
important  than  a  mere  calculation  of  the  permissible  amount  of 
timber  to  cut"  is  a  statement  of  Cotta,  and  practically  repeated  by 
the.  best  authorities  of  the  last  fifty  years.  In  Europe,  with  orderly, 
well  established  forest  business  the  revision  comes  every  ten  or 
twenty  years.*  This  revision  examines  the  property  in  all  its  parts, 
and  re-writes  detail  and  general  report,  and  prepares  a  new  set  of 
general  plans  as  well  as  detail  plans. 

In  our  country,  in  new  wild  wood  enterprises,  there  is  need  for 
more.  Diligent  effort  should  be  made  to  increase  amount  and 
accuracy  of  the  information,  and  this  should  be  utilized,  records  of 
information  amplified  and  corrected,  and  the  plans,  both  general 
and  detail,  corrected  and  modified  in  keeping  with  this  added 
knowledge. 

But  beyond  this,  there  should  be  set  a  definite  period,  when  a- 
systematic  examination  is  made,  whether  in  one  year  or  several,  the 
whole  body  of  information  worked  over  and  corrected,  and  the 
general  plans  entirely  re-written. 

3.  Who  should  make  the  plan?  In  German  State  Forests  this 
work,  (in  the  past)  has  been  done  by  a  special  office  which  revised 
the  plans  of  one  forest  or  revier  after  another  and  aimed  to  get 
around  to  all  of  them  once  every  ten  or  twenty  years.  The  suppo- 

*  The  so-called  "Zwischen  revision"  or  intermediate  revision  is  not  here 
considered. 


202  FOREST  REGULATION 

sition  was  that  "practice  makes  perfect"  here  as  elsewhere.     It  has 
had  three  drawbacks : 

a.  The  forester  works  under,  executes  and  is  responsible  for 
the  results  of  a  plan  which  he  does  not  make,  merely  criticizes  and 
usually  has  to  accept. 

b.  The  upper  office  insists  on  the  plan,  for  it  regards  the  plan 
as  more  competent  than  the  forester  who  did  not  make  it. 

c.  The  competent,  more  experienced  men  in  this  office  do  not 
go  through  the  woods,  but  leave  it  to  young  men  fresh  from  school 
to  describe  and  judge,  very  important  points. 

The  controversy  is  still  on,  but  the  Prussian  State  Forest  office 
in  its  latest  instructions  places  the  task  in  the  hands  of  the  forester, 
the  man  who  knows  (or  should  know)  his  forest  best;  who  has  to 
execute  the  plans  and  is  responsible  for  results. 

In  our  country  it  will  be  the  forester  in  all  ordinary,  private 
enterprises.  In  the  state  and  national  forests  the  task  will  probably 
be  a  divided  one  for  many  years.  And  certainly  a  number  of  the 
more  weighty  questions,  such  as  proper  rotation,  total  permissible 
cut  from  a  forest,  division  into  working  sections,  etc.,  should  have 
the  combined  judgment  of  several  men.  The  example  of  Bavaria  in 
establishing  a  special  commission  to  work  out  proper  rotations  for 
different  state  forests,  is  interesting  in  this  connection. 


APPENDIX. 


TREATMENT  OF  REGULATION 

By  a  Few  of  the  Foremost  German  Authorities. 

To  the  student  of  any  subject,  the  literature,  and  history  of  that 
subject  are  of  value.  In  Forestry  it  is  German  literature  which 
ranks  first  in  quality  and  volume.  Unfortunately  German  is  a  dim- 
cult  language,  and  experience  has  shown  "that  most  of  our  students 
do  not  acquire  sufficient  knowledge  of  German  to  make  use  of  the 
works  of  the  leading  authorities.  For  this  reason  it  may  be  of  inter- 
est to  reproduce  here  a  brief  review  of  the  treatment  of  the  subject 
of  regulation  as  indicated  in  the  table  of  contents  of  which  a  free 
translation  follows : 


I.    JUDEICH  "FORSTEINRICHTUNG." 

Publ.  P.  Parey,  Berlin ;  6th  ed.  544  p.,  1904. 

Prof.  Dr.  Friederich  Judeich,  a  pupil  of  Cotta  and  Cotta's 
successor  as  the  leader  of  forestry  affairs  in  Saxony;  Director  of 
the  Forest  Academy  at  Tharandt,  has  been  generally  recognized  as 
the  foremost  authority  on  Forest  Regulation  in  Europe.  The  first 
edition  of  his  "Forsteinrichtung"  appeared  in  1871 ;  the  6th  was 
edited  by  his  pupil  Neumeister  who  succeeded  him  in  his  position 
as  Director. 

In  his  introduction  the  author  briefly  discusses  the  Yield,  Man- 
agement for  Yearly  Cut,  and  the  task  of  Regulation,  defining  this 
as  follows :  "The  object  of  forest  management  is  the  most  profitable 

use  of  soil  or  land  devoted  to  raising  timber*' "The  task  of 

Regulation  is  to  order  in  time  and  place  the  entire  management 


204  FOREST  REGULATION 

or  business  of  the  forest,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  object  of  the 
management  is  accomplished,  as  fully  as  possible." 

A  complete  list  of  the  literature  of  Forest  Regulation  follows, 
enumerating  229  works : 

Book  I.    General  Basis,  ("Allgemeine  Grundlagen"). 

Note. — The  author  does  not  bother  about  our  reasons  for  doing 
this,  or  preface  with  description  of  forest  conditions  calling  for 
regulation.  All  this  was  done  centuries  ago. 

1.  The     Fundamental     Conditions     of     the     Normal     Forest, 
("Grundbedingungen  d.  Normalwaldes"). 

2.  The  Growth  of  Timber,   ("Aus  der  Zuwachslehre").     In- 
cludes Volume  and  Quality  growth,  and  growth  in  Market  Price, 
the  Growth  in  per  cent,  and  Growth  per  cent  as  measure  of  ripeness 
of  stand.    ("Weiserprozent") 

3.  Rotation,  ("Umtrieb").    Includes  discussion  of  rotation  for 
largest  interest  on  capitals  invested. 

4.  Normal  Age  Classes,   ('Das  Normale  Alters  Klassen  ver- 
haltniss").    Their  relation  to  the  yearly  cut;  area  occupied  by  each 
age  class,  and  the  distribution  of  the  age  classes  in  the  forest. 

5.  Normal  Growing  Stock,   (''Normal  vorrath").    Importance 
and  Volume,  as  well  as  Cost  and  Expectation  Value  of  G.     Goes 
into  a  great  deal  of  forest  valuation. 

6.  Relation  between  Growing  Stock  and  Growth  in  the  Normal 
Forest. 

7.  Normal  Cut,  ("Normaler  Hiebssatz").    In  area,  volume  and 
value ;  its  relation  to  Growth  and  Growing  Stock  in  Normal  Forest. 

8.  Working    Sections,    ("Retriebs    Klassen"    or    "Wirtschafts 
Klassen"). 

9.  The  Actual  Forest. 

Note.— The  author  deals  only  with  the  ordinary  German  forest, 
and  not  with  wild  woods. 

Book  II.    Application,  ("Anwendungen"). 

A.    PRELIMINARY  WORK  ( FIELD  WORK),  ("Vorarbeiten"). 

1.  Survey  of  Land  and  Topography. 

2.  Inventory  of  Forest,  estimating  and  measuring  the  timber; 
study  of  growth;  description  of  land,  soil  or  site,   ("Forstabschat- 
zung"). 


TREATMENT  BY  JUDFJCH  205 

a.  Site,  ("Standortsverhaltnisse"). 

b.  Stand,  (Bestandesverhaltnisse"). 

1.  Preparation  of  Volume  and  Yield  tables,   ("Vorbereitungs 
arheiteiv'). 

2.  Description  of  each  Stand,    ("Bestandsbeschreibung"),  in- 
cluding system  of  treatment,  species,  density,  age,  origin,  volume 
growth,  value  in  money  of  stand  and  soil,  growth  per  cent  in  value, 
(corresponds    to    Schlich's    Detail    Description    of    Compartments) 
and  its  relation  to  the  Capital,   ("Weiserprozent)  ;  classification  of 
land  by  Site  Classes ;  notes  on  future  work. 

3.  Determination  of  past  Incomes  and  Expenses. 
3.  General  Conditions  and  Conditions  not  of  the  Property  itself. 
("Ermittelung  d.  Allgemeinen  und  ausseren  Forstverhaltnisse.") 
Incl.  location,  altitude,  climate,  history  of  forest  itself,  incl.  markets, 
prices,  former  silvicultural  system,  ownership,  contracts,  former 
systems  of  regulation,  accidents  (fire,  insects,  storm,  etc.)  and  dan- 
gers to  forest.  Game  and  trespass.  Present  ownership  and  financial 
ability  of  owner. 

4.  Maps  and  Documents,  ("Karten  and  Schriften").  Incl. :  the 
Inventory  Manual,  Tables  compiled  from  Inventory  Work,  showing 
for  each  plot  of  ground. 

Kind  and  Condition  of  timber  (tables). 

Quality  of  land  (site  tables). 

Area  occupied  by  the  different  Age  Classes  (Age  Class  tables). 

Table  showing  Cut  of  former  years. 

Description  of  Boundaries. 

Note. — The  above  (No.  3  and  4)  corresponds  to  the  general 
and  detail  report  on  the  property. 

B.  DIVISION  OF  FOREST,  ("Waldeintheilung")- 

1.  Division  into  Lots  (Compartments),  ("Abtheilungen"),  and 
Sub-Lots  or  stands,    ("Unterabtheilung  oder  Bestand"),   size  and 
form  of  lots ;  their  relation  to  topography,  and  road  system. 

2.  Cutting  Series. 

3.  Working  Sections. 

4.  Severance  Cuttings  and  Reserves. 

C.  REGULATION  OF  CUT,   or  Determination   of   Yield    (which 
may  be  cut).  ("Ertragsbestimmuhg"). 

Historical  Sketch. 


206  FOREST  REGULATION 

1.  Area  Methods  ("Flachenmethoden"). 

a.  Fixed  Yearly  Cut  or  Division  into  Yearly  Cuts   (by  area), 
(  "Schlageintheilung"  ) . 

b.  Area  Allotment,   (''Flachenfachwerk"). 

2.  Volume  Methods. 

a.  Volume  Allotment,  ("Massenfachwerk"). 

b.  Method  based  on  Normal  Growing  Stock,  ("Normalvorrats- 
methoden").    Austrian  and  Hundeshagen  Methods,  and  their  Modi- 
fications. 

3.  Combined  Methods. 

a.  Area  Allotment  with  Volume  as  check,  ("Combinirtes  Fach- 
werk"). 

b.  Combinations  of  Allotment  Methods  with  those  using  Nor- 
mal Growing  Stock  as  basis. 

c.  Age    Class    Methods,    or    Methods    working   primarily    for 
Regularity  in  Age  Classes,  ("Alters  Klassenmethoden"). 

1.  Saxony  practice  up  to  1860. 

2.  ("Bestandswirtschaft"),    Method   of   Regulation   by   Area, 
working  for  Regularity  of  Age  Classes  as  well  as  Best  Utilization 
of  the  Individual  Stand  of  Timber. 

4.  Regulation  for  Cut  of  Ffqual  Value.    Wagener's  Method. 

D.  COMPILATION  OF  THE  WORKING  PLAN/  ("Zusammenstellung 
d.  Wirtschafts  planes."  Usually  for  ten  years.  Comprises  really 
three  parts,  the  General  Report  includes  List  of  Lands,  or  the  Re- 
ports on  the  Property,  the  General  Plan,  and  the  Detail  Plans. 
Judeich  does  not  clearly  distinguish  these,  but  arranges  as  follows : 

a.  General  Description  and  its  bases,   ("Allgemeine  Beschrei- 
bung  u.  zugehorige  Beilagen"). 

General  Description  of  forest. 
Division  of  Forest,  Regulation  of  Cut. 
Future  treatment. 
Miscellaneous. 
List  of  Lands. 

b.  Detail  Plans. 

i.  Plan  of  Cutting,  ("Specieller  Hauungs  plan").  Table  of 
next  ten-year  cut ;  one  side  of  book — what  is  to  be ;  other  side  of  the 
book — what  has  been  done. 


TREATMENT  BY  JUDEICH  207 

2.  Plan  of  Thinning. 

3.  Plan  of  Planting. 

Continuance  and  Development  of  the  Working  Plan,  (Erhal- 
tung  und  Fortbildung  d.  Einrichtungswerks"). 

1.  Corrections  of  Survey,  (Records  and  Maps). 

2.  Keeping    the    Records    of    Management     (Bookkeeping), 
("Fiihrung  d.  Wirthschaftsbuchs"). 

Its  six  Books  or  Parts ;  all  in  tabular  form : 

a.  Div.  A.    Record  by  Lot.     (Each  lot  gets  two  pages  and  in 
this  is  recorded  how  much  cut,  money  received ;  planting,  thinning, 
etc.,  done  on  this  lot.) 

b.  Div.  B.    Record  of  Cut  with  Comparison  of  Estimates,  when 
cut  is  finished  on  a  lot,  or  stand,  the  volume  and  money  results  are 
recorded  in  this  book  and  compared  with  estimates  made  before 
cutting. 

c.  Div.  C.    Yearly  Cut;  area,  Volume  (by  few  grades,  timber, 
fire  wood,  etc.),  keeping  separate  final  cut  of  stand,  from  thinnings. 
(Only  one  (horiz.)  line  for  each  year)  Each  Working  Section  has 
its  separate  page. 

d.  Div.  D.     Total  Cut  for  Revier  or  Forest,  or  for  Working 
Section  for  the  year  is  compared  with  estimates  or  allotment  as  per 
Plan.    Each  year's  Cut  gets  one  page. 

e.  Record    of    secondary    utilization,     ("Nebennutzungen"), 
Grazing,  Turpentine,  etc.,  etc. 

f.  Div.  F.    Record  of  Net  Income.    All  incomes  and  expenses, 
net  income  and  financial  showing,  i.  e.,  what  per  cent  is  made  on 
capital. 

Tabulary  form  giving:  Area  of  forest,  amount  of  timber  sold, 
gross  income  from  timber  and  other  sources. 

Expenses  total  and  by:  Logging,  other  utilization,  Improve- 
ments (incl.  planting),  administration  and  protection,  taxes,  mis- 
cellaneous. 

Net  income  total  and  per  acre. 

Forest  Capital  total,  and  by  soil  and  growing  stock. 

Interest  made  in  Management,  in  per  cent. 

Remarks,  (explanations  of  important  points,  special  reasons 
for  large  or  small  income,  etc.) 


208  FOREST  REGULATION 

3.    Revisions,  ("Revisionen"). 

a.  The  ten  year  Revision,  ("Hauptrevisionen"). 

1.  How  far  was  Working  Plan  followed  and  reasons  for  devia- 
tions.    Examinations  of  everything  done  in  last  ten  years  and  com- 
parison with  Plan  for  the  ten  years. 

2.  How    far   has    Plan   proven    satisfactory    regarding :     Cut ; 
Thinning;   Distribution   of   Cuts    ("Hiebsfolge")  ;   secondary   utili- 
zation, and  improvements. 

3.  Preparation  of  New  Plan. 

b.  The   five   year    Revisions,    ("Zwischen    revisionen"),    little 
more  than  a  case  of  Special  Detail  Inspection. 

APPENDIX  :  A  few  pages  dealing  with  Regulation  of  large 
properties  (State,  etc.)  and  proper  personnel  to  use  in  Regulation 
Work. 

II.    MARTIN    "FORSTEINRICHTUNG." 

Ptibl.  by  Springer,  Berlin,  3d  ed.,  1910;  28ip. 

Prof.  Dr.  H.  Martin,  now  at  the  Forest  Academy  Tharandt  in 
Saxony,  formerly  at  the  Academy  of  Eberswalde,  Prussia,  is  one  of 
the  most  traveled,  and  best  known  authorities  in  forestry  in  Central 
Europe,  not  only  in  matters  of  Forest  Regulation  and  Statics,  but 
in  Silviculture  and  other  branches. 

In  his  introduction  he  defines  Forest  Regulation  about  as  fol- 
lows: "It  comprises  the  measures  necessary  to  conduct  an  orderly 
forest  management.  Its  most  important  task  is  the  preparation  of 
Working, Plans  which  serve  as  the  basis  and  guide  (Grundlage)  of 
the  Management.  Regulation  forms  the  most  important  subject  of 
instruction  in  the  business  or  management  of  the  forest.''  He  adds : 
"The  most  important  task  of  Regulation  is  to  direct  the  order  or 
progress  of  the  harvest  or  cut  and  removal  of  the  several  stands  of 
timber."  Also :  "The  most  difficult  and  yet  the  most  important  task 
in  the  field  work  (Vorarbeiten)  is  a  suitable  division  of  the  forest 
into  permanent  lots  (Wirtshaftsfig'uren)." 

Part  I.    Field  Work  ("Vorarbeiten  f.  d.  Betriebs  plane"). 

i.  Division  of  Forest  into  permanent  Lots  ("Wirtschafts- 
figuren"),  land  Division  or  "Ort  Abtheilung." 

a.  Division  in  level  country. 

b.  Division  in  hill  and  mountain  countrv. 


TREATMENT   BY   MARTIN  2OQ 

2.  Division  of  Lots  into  Stands  or  Sub-lots,  ("Bestandes  abteil- 
ungen"). 

3.  Description  of  the  Land  (Site)  Location,  topography,  .soil; 
Classification  of  land  into  Site  Classes. 

4.  Description  of  Stand. 

5.  Determinations  of  Amount  of  timber,  methods  of  doing; 
Calculation  or  Computation. 

Part  II.    Growth  and  Growing  Stock  as  Foundation  of  Regula- 
tion of  Cut. 

1.  Volume  Growth;  current  and  average. 

2.  Quality  Growth,   ("Wertzuwachs"). 

3.  Growing  Stock,  ("Materialvorrat"). 

Reasons  for  large  or  small  G.  (timber,  coppice,  etc.).     Manner 
of  calculation  of  Growing  Stock,  Normal  G. 

4.  Preparation  of  Yield  Tables. 

a.  Objects  and  Contents  of  Yield  Tables. 

b.  Different  Kinds  of  Yield  Tables. 

c.  Method  of  preparing  Tables. 

d.  Money  Yield  Tables. 

Part  III.    Preparation  of  Working  Plans  ("Aufstellung  der  Wirt- 
schaftsplane"). 

1.  Combination  of  Stands  of  timber  into  suitable  units  for  bet- 
ter Management,  ("Bildung  d.  Betriebsverbande"). 

a.  Working  Sections. 

b.  Blocks. 

c.  Cutting  Series,  ("Hiebsziige"). 

2.  Rotation.     Importance,  reasons,  methods  of  calculation,  of 
Net  Income;  Income  per  cent  as  measure  of  Ripeness;  Calculation 
of  Se. 

3.  Determination  of  the  Amount  of  timber  to  Cut  each  year, 
("Abnutzungssatz  =  Materialetat"). 

a.  Selection  of  the  Stands  to  cut  during  next  ten  years   (for 
final  cut  and  for  thinnings). 

b.  Regulation    of    Amount    of    Cut    by    Allotment    Method. 
("Fachwerkmethoden") . 

c.  Regulation  by  Methods  using  the  Volume  of  G.,  ("Voraths- 
methoden"). 

4.  Compilation  of  Plans,  Documents  and  Maps. 


210  FOREST  REGULATION 

Part  IV.    Control  and  Continuance  of  Working  Plans    ("Kon- 
trolle  und  Fortfuhrung  d.  Betriebsplane"). 

a.  Control  through  proper  Book-keeping,   ("Gedenkbuch"  and 

"  Wirtschaftsbuch")  • 

b.  Revisions,  ("Taxations  revisionen"). 

Part    V.    Regulation   in    Various    States,    (refers    only    to    State 

forests)    and    includes    Regulation    in    Prussia,    Bavaria. 

Saxony,    Baden,    Hessen,    Grd.    Duchy    Saxony,    Alsace- 

Loraine,  Austria  and  France. 

In  the  former  edition  he  adds  a  Review  ("Riickblick")  which 

sums  up  the  present  situation  in  a  very  able  manner.     Among  the 

points  made  are  these : 

1.  Methods  in  actual  practice  differ  to  some  extent  but  resemble 
far  more  than  appears  from  the  Instructions. 

2.  Most  essential  points  in  all  alike  are : 

a.  To  determine  what  Stands  should  be  reproduced  in  the  next 
year,  or  next  ten  years. 

b.  In  judging  them  we  must  consider  the  forest  as  a  whole. 

c.  All    agree   practically,    that    the    Normal    Area    Regulation 
( A /r  =  yearly  area  to  cut)  must  serve  as  final. 

d.  This  Measure  is  modified  according  to  the  condition  of  age 
classes. 

e.  In  this  agreement  on  a  Normal  Area  to  be  cut  each  year 
(A/r)  the  rotation  r  is  set  as  a  definite,  fixed  quantity.     In  practice 
it  must  of  necessity  be  a  variable,  the  age  at  which  a  stand  is  actually 
cut  must  depend  on  many  things,  its  growth  and  condition,  market, 
accidents  to  other  stands,  etc. 

III.    A.  VON  GUTTENBERG,  "FORSTBETRIEBSEIN- 
RICHTUNG." 

Publ.  by  Denticke,  Wien  and  Leipzig,  1911  ;  2d  ed. ;  393  p. 

Contains  excellent  maps  of  samples  in  forest  division. 

Prof.  Dr.  Adolf  Ritter  von  Guttenberg  of  the  Imperial  Academy 
for  Agriculture  (Bodenkultur)  is  well  known  as  the  foremost 
authority  in  forestry  in  Austria ;  author  of  Forest  Mensuration  in 
Lo rey's  Handbuch.  etc.  The  book  is  specially  interesting  to  the 


TREATMENT  BY  GUTTfcNBRRG  21 1 

American  student  since  it  draws  heavily  on  the  forest  conditions  of 
the  rough  mountain  country  af  Austria  and  is  written  in  very  simple 
and  clear  language. 

In  his  Introduction,  the  author  describes  the  considerations  and 
tasks  in  Regulation ;  the  peculiarities  of  forestry  as  a  business ;  and 
presents  a  brief  Historic  Review  and  a  list  of  literature.  There  is 
no  special  Definition,  but  he  practically  defines  Regulation  in  the 
opening  sentences  about  as  follows : 

"Forest  Regulation  is  that  part  of  the  Science  of  Forestry  and 
particularly  of  Forest  management  which  attempts  a  well  planned 
Order  and  Arrangement  ("Ordung  und  Einrichtung")  of  the  entire 
Management  of  a  forest,  and  especially  the  Regulation  of  the  Cut  in 
order  to  assure  the  most  profitable  and  continued  yield  (sustained 
Yield)  or  income  from  the  property.". 

Part  I.    Theory  ("Theorie"). 

A.  GENERAL  BASTS,  ("Allgemeine  Grundlagen"). 

1.  Object  of  Forest  management. 

2.  Forest  for  yearly  Income,  ("Nachhaltigkeit"). 

3.  Income    or    Yield    from    the    Forest    (Vol.    and    Money), 
(  "Forstertrag"  ) . 

4.  Growth  in  the  Forest,  ("Zuwachs"). 

5.  Growth   in   Value   as  measure  of   Ripeness  of  the   Stand, 
(  "Weiserprozent" ) . 

6.  Rotation. 

7.  The  Normal  Forest. 

8.  The    Actual    Forest    and    its    change    toward    the    Normal 
Forest. 

B.  METHODS  OF  REGULATION,  ("Methoden  d.  Ertrags  bestim- 
mung  und  Betriebseinrichtung"). 

1.  Division    of    forest   into    fixed    Yearly    Cuts,    ("Schlagein- 
theilung"). 

2.  Allotment     Methods,     ("Fachwerksmethoden")     in     Area, 
Volume  or  both  ;  and  also  by  Values  or  Money  returns. 

3.  Formula  Methods,  ("Formelmethoden"),  chiefly  those  using 
Gn  and  also  Hufnagl's. 

4.  Judeich's  Method  of  Regulation  by  Area,  for  Regular  Age 
Classes  and  best  Use  of  Individual  Stand,  ("Bestandswirtschaft"). 

5.  Regulation  by  Experience  figures,  ("Ertrags  schatzung  nach 
Durchschnitts  grossen"). 


212  FOREST  REGULATION 

Part  II.     Execution  or  Application  ("Ausfuhrung"). 

A.  FIELD  WORK,  or  PRELIMINARY  WORK,  ("Vorarbeiten"). 

1.  Division  of  Forest  into:  Working  Sections,  Cutting  Series, 
Lots  and  Stands  or  Sub-Lots   (Unterabteilungen)    Fine  examples 
(Maps)   of  Forest  Division,   (Plate  I,  p.  208)   taken  from  Forest 
Maps  of  existing  Reviers,  from  actual  practice. 

2.  Forest  Survey. 

3.  Description  of  Forest. 

a.  Special  Studies,  ( "Allgemeine  Vorerhebungen")  Site;  Yield 
tables ;  Grades  and  Prices,  Money  Yield  tables ;  Losses  in  logging. 

b.  Detail  Forest  Description  proper,  by  lots,    ("Specielle  Be- 
standes  aufnahme")  Site  ;  Stand  ;  Estimates  of  .Volume  and  Growth  ; 
Determination  of  ripeness;  Notes  as  to  work  necessary  during  the 
next  ten  years  (refers  to  work  with  forest  growth,  not  roads,  etc.) 
Preparation  of  tables  and  maps. 

c.  General  Description  of  Forest :  Ownership ;  Location,  Area, 
and  shape  of  property  ;  boundaries  ;  conditions  concerning  the  owner, 
which  affect  the  management,  his  business  and  finances,  etc. ;  Top- 
ography;   Site,  including  Soil,   Climate;   Species  and  peculiarities; 
dangers  to  forest;  treatment  of  forest  in  the  past  (history  of  prop- 
erty) ;  Present  Condition  of  forest;  Surrounding  Population  and  ith 
influence;  matters  of  market,  labor,  trespass,  dangers;   Means  of 
Transportation;  secondary  uses  and  incomes  from  forest  (grazing, 
bark,   etc.);   Labor   and  present  Organization  of  labor   in   forest; 
Organization  of  Forest  Officers. 

B.  FOREST  REGULATION,  THE  WORKING  PLAN,  ("Eigentliche 
Betriebseinrichtung") . 

1.  General    Plan    or    Agreement    regarding    the    Principles, 
(Grundziige")  of  the  Management. 

a.    Choice  of  Silvicultural  Methods. 

b.  Choice  of  Species. 

c.  Rotation. 

d.  Decision  as  to  where  to  begin  and  how  to  proceed  with  the 
Cutting  of  the  timber,  ("Feststellung  d.  hiebsfolge")- 

e.  Considerations  in  matters  of  reproduction  and  in  the  care 
of  the  forest. 

2.  Preparation  of  the  Detail  Plans,  ("Aufstellung  der  Betriebs 
Plane"). 


TREATMENT   BY   GUTTENBERG  213 

a.  Plan  of  Cutting,  Determination  of  the  area,  or  of  the  vol- 
ume to  cut.     This   for  each  form,  timber   forest  with  even  aged 
stands,  the  selection  forest,  coppice  and  standard  coppice. 

b.  Plan  of  Restocking  (Planting,  etc.). 

c.  Plan     of     Secondary     Utilization     (Grazing,     Turpentine, 
Bark,  etc. 

C.  BOOKKEEPING,  or  RECORDS  OF  THE  WORK  and  RESULTS  OF 
THE  MANAGEMENT,   ("Nachtrags  arbeiten  und  Buchfuhrung  u.  d. 
Betriebsergebnisse"  ) . 

1.  Important  notes  and  corrections  regarding  changes  in  land 
area,  markets,  errors  in  maps,  location  of  boundary,  i.  e.,  history  of 
property  which  may  be  of  interest  to  future  regulation  or  explain 
particular  operations  or  measures  taken  by  forester.     He  suggests 
two  books : 

"Vormerkbuch,"  for  changes  and  errors  which  must  receive 
attention  at  next  revision. 

"Gedenkbuch,"  history  of  markets,  seasons,  even  visitors.  But 
also  all  improvement,  roads,  drainage,  phone  lines,  etc. 

2.  "Wirtschaftsbuch"  or  Regular  Set  of  Records. 
Uses  only  four  books. 

a.  Record  by  Lot. 

b.  The  Cut  by  lots,  or  else  by  Working  Section,    ("Betriebs 
Klasse")  and  Forest  by  totals. 

c.  Plantation  and  Restocking  'generally  and  work  for  the  care 
of  growing  stock,  with  costs  stated,  may  be  added  to  book  a. 

d.    Secondary  Utilization. 

D.  REVISION     (Continuance     and     Development    of     Plans), 
("Erneuerung  u.  Fortbildung  der  Einrichtung"  ) . 

Appendix,  Examples  in  Regulation. 

IV.    STOETZER,  "FORSTEINRICHTUNG." 

Publ.  by  Sauerlander,  Frankfort,  A.M.,  1908;  2d  ed.,  352  p. 

Prof.  Dr.  H.  Stoetzer,  Director  of  the  Forest  Academy  at 
Eisenach,  and  Director  of  Forest  Affairs  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
.Saxony,  one  of  the  authorities  in  German  forest  literature ;  editor 
of  the  last  edition  of  Lorey's  "Handbuch",  the  great  Manual  of 
Forestrv. 


214  FOREST  REGULATION 

This  book  combines  Mensuration  and  Regulation,  devoting 
practically  equal  amount  of  space  to  each. 

In  the  introduction  the  Author  explains  the  task  of  Regulation 
and  the  Normal  Forest,  defining"  Regulation  about  as  follows : 

"Forest  Regulation  attempts  to  bring  and  to  maintain  order  in 
the  management  of  a  forest ;  it  regulates  particularly  the  manner 
and  time  of  cutting  the  different  stands  of  a  forest ;  it  plans  to 
restock  the  land  with  new  stands  of  trees ;  and  it  determines  the 
amount  of  timber  which  may  be  cut  each  year  without  diminishing 
the  Wood  Capital  or  endangering  the  continuance  of  such  a  cut  for 
the  future." 

He  adds :  "The  provisions  of  forest  regulation  are  not  em- 
ployed for  individual  stands  of  timber,  cut  at  intervals  of  many 
years,  but  apply  to  forests  where  a  yearly  cut  of  timber  is  possible 
and  demanded." 

The  Division  of  the  subject  is  as  follows: 
Part  I.    Preliminary  Work  ("Vorarbeiten  der  Forsteinrichtung"). 

Chiefly  a  brief  treatise  of  Mensuration,  adding  a  thorough  dis- 
cussion on  Division  of  the  Forest,  Survey  and  Maps,  and  also  Forest 
Description. 

Part  II.    Forest  Regulation  ("Haupt  arbeit  der  Forsteinrichtung"). 

1.  Decision  regarding:   Silvicultural   Methods,   Species,   Rota- 
tion, and  the  grouping  of  the  several  tracts  of  woods  into  Working 
Sections,  ("Betriebverbande,  Blocke"). 

2.  Methods  of  Forest  Regulation    ("Methoden  der  Forstein- 
richtung"), classifying  them  into: 

Fixed  Yearly  Cut  ("Schlageintheilung"). 

Area  and  Volume  Allotments,  ("Fachwerksmethoden"). 

Volume  Methods  depending  on  the  Growing  Stock,  ("Formel- 
methoden"). 

Regulation  by  Volume,  based  on  Experience  figures,  ("Ertrags- 
bestimmung  nach  Durchschnitsertragen"). 

3.  Execution  of  Regulation  or  Preparation  of  the  Plan,  ("Ar- 
beitstheile  der  Ausfiihrung  von  Forsteinrichtungen"). 

a.  Timber  Forests. 

T.  Table  of  Age  Classes, 

2.  Allotment  Plan,  ("Flachenangriffsplan"). 

3.  Calculation  of  the  Yield  or  Cut. 


TREATMENT  BY  STOETZER  215 

4.  Detail  Description  of  all  stands  (by  Working  Sections) 
stating  site,  stand,  and  what  to  do  with  it. 

b.  Plan  for  Selection  Forest. 

c.  Plan  for  Coppice  or  Standard  Coppice. 

4.  Other  Points  in  Forest  Regulation,  (/'Sonstige  Punkte  d. 
Forsteinrichtung") . 

a.  General  Description  of  Forest. 

Includes :  Ownership,  Area,  Location,  Markets,  Prices,  Trans- 
portation facilities,  Site,  including  soil,  topography,  Climate,  Tim- 
ber, Species  Types  ("Waldformen"),  System  of  treatment,  Age 
classes. 

History  of  forest. 

b.  General   Plan  of   Management,    ("Allgemeine   Betriebsord- 
nung"),  Including: 

1.  Objects  of  Management  (for  largest  returns;  largest  inter- 
est  on   capital ;   for   public   good ;    for   Protective    forest,    Scenery, 
Park,  etc.). 

2.  Choice  of  Species,  System  of  treatment.  Arrangement  into 
Working  Sections. 

3.  Rotation. 

4.  Cut,  and  Principles  followed  in  Cutting ;  .and  a  showing  to 
prove  that  forest  is  not  overcut. 

5.  Reproduction,  artificial  or  natural,  size  of  cutting  areas,  and 
methods  of  work  are  to  be  justified  by  sufficient  reasons. 

6.  Thinnings  and  Improvement  cutting,  reasons  for  frequency 
and  size  of  tracts  treated. 

7.  Nursery  and  Plantation  Work,  ("Kulturbetriebe"). 

8.  Plan    of    secondary    utilization,    ("Betrieb    d.    Nebennutz- 
ungen"). 

9.  Plan  of  Road  Construction. 

10.  Forest  Protection. 

IT.    Income  and  Expenses ;  estimates  of  these. 

c.  Forest  Maps. 

d.  Organization  of  personnel   for   forest   regulation ;   checking 
the  work ;  its  acceptance  by  proper  office. 

Part  III.    Control  and  Revision  of  the  Plans. 

i.    Control  of  Management. 

a.    Correction  of  the  Survey  work,  boundaries,  maps,  etc. 


216  FOREST  REGULATION 

b.  Detail  Record  of  timber  cut  and  planting  done,  ("Nachweis 
d.  Betriebsergebnisse  (Kontrollbuch"). 

c.  Control  of  Total  Cut,  amount  cut  per  year  compared  with 
amount  set  in  plan.     "Waldangriffs  Kontrolle." 

d.  History  of  Forest,  a  record  of  all  important  events,  calami- 
ties, market,   experiences  in  cutting,   thinning,  planting ;   improve- 
ments, trespass ;  personnel ;  hunting  and  fishing. 

2.    Revisions  every  ten  years,  ("Haupt  revisionen"). 

a.  Gathering  data  for  revision. 

b.  Tabulated  statement  covering 

1.  What  was  done  (cut,  etc.)  last  ten  years. 

2.  What  is  to  be  done  next  ten  years. 

c.  Intermediate  or  five  year  Revisions,    ("Zwischen  revision- 
en''),  Careful  Inspection,  reports,  etc. 


V.    WEISE,  "LEITFADEN  FUR  VORLESUNGEN  AUS 
DEM  GEBIETE  DER  ERTRAGSREGELUNG." 

Publ.  by  Springer,  Berlin,  1904;  202  p. 

Professor  and  Oberforstmeister  W.  Weise,  for  years  Director 
of  the  Forest  Academy  Miinden  (Hanover- Prussia),  author  of  the 
well  known  "Waldbau",  an  excellent  practitioner  and  teacher,  and 
one  of  Germany's  leading  men  in  the  development  of  forestry.  The 
book,  as  stated  in  the  title  is  to  serve  as  guide  to  the  students  in 
taking  his  course  in  Regulation  ;  it  combines  Forest  Mensuration  and 
Regulation,  and  is  one  of  the  clearest  and  simplest  statements  of  the 
subject  in  the  German  language.  The  author  treats  the  subject  as 
follows : 

Book  I.  Determination  of  Volume  in  the  Forest  ("Massener- 
mittelung")  including  relations  of  H.  D.  and  Vol.  of  tree 
and  Stand  ;  Volume  and  Yield  tables.  Chiefly  Forest  Men- 
suration. 

Book  II.    Growth  in  the  forest  ("Der  Zuwachs"). 

1.  Volume  growth  of  tree  and  stand. 

2.  Quality  growth. 

3.  Growth  in  market  price. 


TREATMENT  BY  WEISE  21 7 

Book  III.  Conditions  of  the  Normal  Forest  with  regard  to  grow- 
ing stock,  growth,  and  cut,  where  cut  is  yearly,  and  of 
equal  volume  and  where  site  is  uniform. 

a.  In  timber  forest  with  clear  cut  and  artificial  reproduction. 
In  timber  forest  with  natural  reproduction. 

In  timber  forest  with  "Lichtungen"  or  special  thinnings. 

b.  Shelterwood  system. 

c.  Selection  forest. 

d.  Coppice  and  standard  coppice. 

Book  IV.    Rotation  ("Lehre  vom  Umtrieb"). 

Physical  Rotation. 

Rotation  for  maximum  Volume. 

The  technical  Rotation. 

Rotation  for  Largest  Rental,  or  Income. 

Rotation    for   largest    Income    with   existing    (irregular)    Age 
Classes. 

Rotation  for  largest  Interest  on  Capitals,  i.  e.,  Max.  Se. 

Rotation  for  Stand  vs.  Forest,  shows  that  if  we  have  a  forest 
to  deal  with  we  may  begin  with  lower  r  and  work  up,  to  get  income 
and  interest  earlier. 
Book  V.    Division  of  Forest  to  enable  Regulation. 

Revier,    Protective   Units,    ("Forstschutz    bezirk"),    "Blocke", 
"Betriebs  Klassen",  "Hiebsziige." 

Jagen  or  Districts  (regular  or  irregular  form),  Lots. 

Abtheilung  (Sub-lots  or  Stands). 

Yearly  or  Periodic  Cutting  Areas  for  Coppice  and  for  Selection 
forest,  ("Schlageintheilung"). 

Historic  Part  of  Book,  Methods  of  Regulation. 
Book  I.    Regulation  in  Timber  Forest  (''Hochwaldschatzung"). 
i.    Devolopment  of  Allotment  Methods. 

a.  Beginning  stages. 

b.  The  finished  Allotment  Methods. 

c.  Allotment  with  the  Computation  of  Volumes  limited  to  part 
of  a  rotation,  ("Fachwerk  mit  eingeschrankter  Massenberechnung''). 

d.  Development   of   the   modern   method   which    regulates   by 
Area  but  works  for  Regular  Age  Classes  and  for  best  use  of  the 
individual  stand.     ("Entwickelung  d.  Bestandeswirtschaft") 


2i  S  FOREST  REGULATION 

2.    Methods   using   the    Normal   Growing   Stock   as   basis   of 
Regulation. 

a.  Austrian  Method. 

b.  Hundeshagen. 

c.  Breyman,  Karl,  Heyer  and  Baden  Methods  or  Modifications. 

Book  II.    Regulation  in  Coppice  ("Niederwald  abschatzung"). 

Book   III.    Regulation   in    Standard    Coppice    ("Mittelwald   Ab- 
schatzung"). 

Book    IV.    Regulation    in    Selection    Forest    ('Tlenterwald    Ab- 
schatzung"). 


VI.    WAGNER,  "DIE  GRUNDLAGEN  DER  RAUMLICHEN 
ORDNUNG  IM  WALDE." 

Published  by  Laupp,  Tubingen,  1907. 

Dr.  C.  Wagner,  Professor  at  the  University  of  Tubingen  and 
formerly  forester  at  the  famous  Revier  Gaildorf,  Wiirttemberg. 
While  this  book  does  not  pretend  to  teach  Forest  Regulation,  it  is 
nevertheless  one  of  the  most  instructive  and  suggestive  works  deal- 
ing with  the  proper  division  of  the  forest,  arrangement  or  distribu- 
tion of  young  and  old  (age  classes),  methods  of  natural  reproduction 
and  particularly  proper  direction  and  progress  of  the  cut.  These 
matters  are  all  fundamental  to  forestry,  they  are  not  treated  ade- 
quately in  our  textbooks  on  Regulation,  seem  foreign  and  academic 
to  us  in  our  Wild  Woods  work,  and  so  are  difficult  for  the  young 
American  forester  to  learn. 


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